Christopher Leone

The measurement of locus of control: assessing more than meets the eye?

Abstract Ambiguities in the conceptions and measurement of locus of control were investigated in this study. Specifically, some psychometric properties of several widely used measures of perceived behavior–outcome contingency, interpersonal power, and social self-efficacy were assessed. To different degrees, the results indicated that all three measures of perceived behavior–outcome contingency lacked convergent and discriminant validity. Implications for interpreting past research, directions for future investigations, and limitations of the present study are discussed.

The Need for Closure and the Need for Structure: Interrelationships, Correlates, and Outcomes

Abstract In this study, the authors administered the Need for Closure Scale (A. W. Kruglanski, D. M. Webster, & A. Klem, 1993) and the Personal Need for Structure Scale (as cited in S. L. Neuberg & J. T. Newsom, 1993) to 2 samples of undergraduates, to assess the reliability and validity of these measures. Scores on both scales as well as their sub-scales were internally consistent. As was found in prior investigations, no sex differences were obtained in this study for scores on these 2 personality measures. Additionally, age of the respondents was independent of responses to the Need for Closure Scale and the Personal Need for Structure Scale. In contrast to some prior studies but consistent with recent other investigations, scores from these 2 measures were strongly correlated with one another. Unlike previous studies, scores on indices of the need for closure and of the personal need for structure were strongly related to scores on measures of dogmatism and intolerance of ambiguity. Implications for f...

Self-generated attitude change: Some effects of thought and dogmatism on attitude polarization

Abstract Three predictions were made. First, dogmatic persons would be more likely than would nondogmatic persons to polarize their attitudes (i.e. feelings) as the opportunity for thought increases. Second, dogmatic persons would be more likely than would nondogmatic persons to hold attitude consistent beliefs as the opportunity for thought increases. Third, dogmatic persons would be less likely than would nondogmatic persons to hold attitude-inconsistent beliefs as the opportunity for thought increases. These ideas were evaluated by having participants complete a short form of the dogmatism scale. They later rated their initial attitudes toward a variety of issues, thought about some of the issues for either 45 or 90 sec, re-rated their attitudes, listed their beliefs about the issues, and indicated which beliefs agreed, disagreed, or were neutral with respect to the issues. Results were consistent with all three hypotheses. Possible mediating processes and alternative explanations were discussed.

Sensation-Seeking and Differentially Arousing Television Commercials

Abstract The authors predicted (a) that disinhibited consumers would react more favorably to advertising that was high in arousal and (b) that inhibited consumers would react more favorably to advertising that was low in arousal. They tested these predictions by having U.S. college students evaluate both the commercial and the product being marketed in 1 of 2 beer commercials. The prospective buyers then completed a measure of dispositional sensation-seeking tendencies. Although the participants who differed in disinhibition reacted differently to the 2 commercials, the nature of their responses was more complex than predicted.

Self-Monitoring, Marital Dissatisfaction, and Relationship Dissolution: Individual Differences in Orientations to Marriage and Divorce

The relationship between self-monitoring and marriage was examined. In the first study, it was hypothesized that marital satisfaction would be greater for low self-monitoring spouses than for high self-monitoring spouses. One hundred seventeen persons who were currently married completed the Self-Monitoring Scale and the Revised Dyadic Interaction Scale (an index of marital satisfaction). The majority of satisfied spouses were low self-monitors; the majority of dissatisfied spouses were high self-monitors. In the second study, it was hypothesized that divorce would be more likely among high self-monitoring spouses than low self-monitoring spouses. Sixty-five persons who were currently married completed the Self-Monitoring Scale and indicated the number of times they had been divorced. The majority of those who had been divorced one or more times were high self-monitors; the majority of those who had never been divorced were low self-monitors. Although alternative interpretations are plausible, self-monitoring differences in orientations toward close relationships account in part for marital dissatisfaction and dissolution.

THOUGHT, OBJECTIVISM, AND OPINION EXTREMITY : INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDE POLARIZATION AND ATTENUATION

Abstract It was predicted that as the opportunity for thought increased, both the evaluative consistency of attitude-related beliefs and the intensity of attitudes (i.e. affect) would (1) increase for persons high in objectivism and (2) decrease for persons low in objectivism. Participants were classified as either high or low in objectivism. They were given either a brief or ample opportunity to think about descriptions of individuals toward whom they had previously expressed moderately strong attitudes. The results supported all predictions. Additional analyses indicated that attitude change was contingent upon belief change. Alternative explanations for the results are discussed.

The self-control consequences of political ideology

Significance Surprisingly little is known about the self-control consequences of individuals’ political ideologies, given the centrality of political ideology to people’s self-identity and the vitality of self-control to human functioning. This research addresses this unexplored gap by offering insight into the processes (freewill beliefs) and factors (the value of freewill for effective self-control) that lead both conservatives and liberals to demonstrate greater self-control. In doing so, these findings provide a platform by which to broaden our understanding of the underlying mechanisms impacting self-control as well as an alternative perspective for interpreting previously documented differences between conservatives and liberals (e.g., intelligence, academic success). Evidence from three studies reveals a critical difference in self-control as a function of political ideology. Specifically, greater endorsement of political conservatism (versus liberalism) was associated with greater attention regulation and task persistence. Moreover, this relationship is shown to stem from varying beliefs in freewill; specifically, the association between political ideology and self-control is mediated by differences in the extent to which belief in freewill is endorsed, is independent of task performance or motivation, and is reversed when freewill is perceived to impede (rather than enhance) self-control. Collectively, these findings offer insight into the self-control consequences of political ideology by detailing conditions under which conservatives and liberals are better suited to engage in self-control and outlining the role of freewill beliefs in determining these conditions.

Opportunity for thought and differences in the need for cognition: a person by situation analysis of self-generated attitude change

Abstract It was predicted that as the opportunity for thought increased, both the evaluative consistency of attitude-related beliefs and the intensity of attitudes (i.e. affect) would increase. These increases were expected to be more likely for low than for high need for cognition persons. Participants were classified as either high or low in the need for cognition. They were given either a brief or ample opportunity to think about issues toward which they had previously expressed moderately strong attitudes. The results supported all predictions. Additional analyses indicated that attitude change was contingent upon belief change. Alternative explanations (e.g. schema complexity, commitment to initial positions) for the results were discussed.

Self-generated attitude change: Some effects of thought, dogmatism, and reality constraints☆

Abstract Two predictions were derived from a model of self-generated attitude change [Tesser, A. (1978) Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. II, pp. 289–338). New York: Academic Press]. First, increasing thought in the presence of reality constraints would limit changes made in attitude-related beliefs and, therefore, would restrict attitude polarization (i.e. result in attitude attenuation). Second, the effects of reality constraints on thought-induced changes in beliefs and attitude polarization (attenuation) would be more likely to occur for dogmatic persons than for nondogmatic persons. Based on responses to a short form of the dogmatism scale, subjects were classified as either dogmatic or nondogmatic. Participants were given either little or ample oppurtunity to think with reality constraints present about descriptions of persons for which they had moderate initial attitudes. Participants then rerated their attitudes, listed the beliefs they had during thought, and indicated whether the beliefs about the persons were favorable or unfavorable. The results were consistent with the predictions.

Some Effects of Sex-Linked Clothing and Gender Schema on the Stereotyping of Infants

Two predictions were evaluated: first, that given minimal information about an infant, individuals would use sex-related cues (i.e., clothing) to categorize, evaluate, and make attributions about the infant, and second, that gender schematic individuals would be more likely than gender aschematic individuals to use such sex-related cues. On the basis of the Bem Sex Role Inventory, American college students were classified as either gender schematic (masculine or feminine) or gender aschematic (undifferentiated or androgynous). The students categorized, evaluated, and made trait attributions about an infant dressed in male, female, or ambiguous clothing. Both gender schematic and gender aschematic individuals relied on sex-related cues in their perceptions of the infant.