D Kitzmann

Clouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets. I. Climatic effects of multi-layered clouds for Earth-like planets and implications for habitable zones

The effects of multi-layered clouds in the atmospheres of Earth-like planets orbiting different types of stars are studied. The radiative effects of cloud particles are directly correlated with their wavelength-dependent optical properties. Therefore the incident stellar spectra may play an important role for the climatic effect of clouds. We discuss the influence of clouds with mean properties measured in the Earths atmosphere on the surface temperatures and Bond albedos of Earth-like planets orbiting different types of main sequence dwarf stars.

Clouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets - II. Thermal emission spectra of Earth-like planets influenced by low and high-level clouds

Aims. We study the impact of multi-layered clouds (low-level water and high-level ice clouds) on the thermal emission spectra of Earth-like planets orbiting different types of stars. Clouds have an important influence on such planetary emission spectra due to their wavelength dependent absorption and scattering properties. We also investigate the influence of clouds on the ability to derive information about planetary surface temperatures from low-resolution spectra. Methods. We use a previously developed parametric cloud model based on observations in the Earth’s atmosphere, coupled to a onedimensional radiative-convective steady state climate model. This model is applied here to study the effect of clouds on the thermal emission spectra of Earth-like extrasolar planets in dependence of the type of central star. Results. The presence of clouds lead in general to a decrease of the planetary IR spectrum associated with the dampening of spectral absorption features such as the 9.6 µm absorption band of O3 for example. This dampening is not limited to absorption features originating below the cloud layers but was also found for features forming above the clouds. When only single cloud layers are considered, both cloud types exhibit basically the same effects on the spectrum but the underlying physical processes are clearly different. For model scenarios where multi-layered clouds have been considered with coverages which yield mean Earth surface temperatures, the low-level clouds have only a small influence on the thermal emission spectra. In these cases the major differences are caused by highlevel ice clouds. The largest effect was found for a planet orbiting the F-type star, where no absorption features can be distinguished in the low-resolution emission spectrum for high cloud coverages. However, for most central stars, planetary atmospheric absorption bands are present even at high cloud coverages. Clouds also affect the derivation of surface temperatures from low-resolution spectra when fitting black-body radiation curves to the spectral shape of the IR emission spectra. With increasing amount of high-level clouds the derived temperatures increasingly under-estimate the real planetary surface temperatures. Consequently, clouds can alter significantly the measured apparent temperature of a planet as well as the detectability of the characteristic spectral signatures in the infrared. Therefore, planets with observationally derived somewhat lower surface temperatures should not be discarded too quickly from the list of potential habitable planets before further investigations on the presence of clouds have been made.

The extrasolar planet Gliese 581d: a potentially habitable planet?

Aims. The planetary system around the M star Gliese 581 contains at least three close-in potentially low-mass planets, Gl 581c, d, and e. In order to address the question of the habitability of Gl 581d, we performed detailed atmospheric modeling studies for several planetary scenarios. Methods. A 1D radiative-convective model was used to calculate temperature and pressure profiles of model atmospheres, which we assumed to be composed of molecular nitrogen, water, and carbon dioxide. The model allows for changing surface pressures caused by evaporation/condensation of water and carbon dioxide. Furthermore, the treatment of the energy transport has been improved in the model to account in particular for high CO2, high-pressure Super-Earth conditions. Results. For four high-pressure scenarios of our study, the resulting surface temperatures were above 273 K, indicating a potential habitability of the planet. These scenarios include three CO2-dominated atmospheres (95% CO2 concentration with 5, 10, and 20 bar surface pressure) and a high-pressure CO2-enriched atmosphere (5% CO2 concentration with 20 bar surface pressure). For all other considered scenarios, the calculated Gl 581d surface temperatures were below the freezing point of water, suggesting that Gl 581d would not be habitable then. The results for our CO2-dominated scenarios confirm very recent model results by Wordsworth et al. (2010). However, our model calculations imply that also atmospheres that are not CO2-dominated (i.e., 5% vmr instead of 95% vmr) could result in habitable conditions for Gl 581d.

Clouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets - IV. On the scattering greenhouse effect of CO2 ice particles: Numerical radiative transfer studies

Context. Owing to their wavelength-dependent absorption and scattering properties, clouds have a strong impact on the climate of planetary atmospheres. The potential greenhouse effect of CO2 ice clouds in the atmospheres of terrestrial extrasolar planets is of particular interest because it might influence the position and thus the extension of the outer boundary of the classic habitable zone around main sequence stars. Such a greenhouse effect, however, is a complicated function of the CO2 ice particles’ optical properties. Aims. We study the radiative effects of CO2 ice particles obtained by different numerical treatments to solve the radiative transfer equation. To determine the effectiveness of the scattering greenhouse effect caused by CO2 ice clouds, the radiative transfer calculations are performed over the relevant wide range of particle sizes and optical depths, employing different numerical methods. Methods. We used Mie theory to calculate the optical properties of particle polydispersion. The radiative transfer calculations were done with a high-order discrete ordinate method (DISORT). Two-stream radiative transfer methods were used for comparison with previous studies. Results. The comparison between the results of a high-order discrete ordinate method and simpler two-stream approaches reveals large deviations in terms of a potential scattering efficiency of the greenhouse effect. The two-stream methods overestimate the transmitted and reflected radiation, thereby yielding a higher scattering greenhouse effect. For the particular case of a cool M-type dwarf, the CO2 ice particles show no strong effective scattering greenhouse effect by using the high-order discrete ordinate method, whereas a positive net greenhouse effect was found for the two-stream radiative transfer schemes. As a result, previous studies of the effects of CO2 ice clouds using two-stream approximations overrated the atmospheric warming caused by the scattering greenhouse effect. Consequently, the scattering greenhouse effect of CO2 ice particles seems to be less effective than previously estimated. In general, higher order radiative transfer methods are needed to describe the effects of CO2 ice clouds accurately as indicated by our numerical radiative transfer studies.

3D climate modeling of Earth-like extrasolar planets orbiting different types of host stars

Abstract The potential habitability of a terrestrial planet is usually defined by the possible existence of liquid water on its surface, since life as we know it needs liquid water at least during a part of its life cycle. The potential presence of liquid water on a planetary surface depends on many factors such as, most importantly, surface temperatures. The properties of the planetary atmosphere and its interaction with the radiative energy provided by the planets host star are thereby of decisive importance. In this study we investigate the influence of different main-sequence stars (F, G, and K-type stars) upon the climate of Earth-like extrasolar planets and their potential habitability by applying a state-of-the-art three-dimensional (3D) Earth climate model accounting for local and dynamical processes. The calculations have been performed for planets with Earth-like atmospheres at orbital distances (and corresponding orbital periods) where the total amount of energy received from the various host stars equals the solar constant. In contrast to previous 3D modeling studies, we include the effect of ozone radiative heating upon the vertical temperature structure of the atmospheres. The global orbital mean results obtained have been compared to those of a one-dimensional (1D) radiative convective climate model to investigate the approximation of global mean 3D results by those of 1D models. The different stellar spectral energy distributions lead to different surface temperatures and due to ozone heating to very different vertical temperature structures. As previous 1D studies we find higher surface temperatures for the Earth-like planet around the K-type star, and lower temperatures for the planet around the F-type star compared to an Earth-like planet around the Sun. However, this effect is more pronounced in the 3D model results than in the 1D model because the 3D model accounts for feedback processes such as the ice-albedo and the water vapor feedback. Whether the 1D model may approximate the global mean of the 3D model results strongly depends on the choice of the relative humidity profile in the 1D model, which is used to determine the water vapor profile. Hence, possible changes in the hydrological cycle need to be accounted for when estimating the potential habitability of an extrasolar planet.

Clouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets - III. Impact of low and high-level clouds on the reflection spectra of Earth-like planets

Context. Owing to their wavelength dependent absorption and scattering properties, clouds have an important influence on spectral albedos and planetary reflection spectra. In addition, the spectral energy distribution of the incident stellar light determines the detectable absorption bands of atmospheric molecules in these reflection spectra. Aims. We study the influence of low-level water and high-level ice clouds on low-resolution reflection spectra and planetary albedos of Earth-like planets orbiting different types of stars in both the visible and near infrared wavelength range. Methods. We use a one-dimensional radiative-convective steady-state atmospheric model coupled with a parametric cloud model, based on observations in the Earth’s atmosphere to study the effect of both cloud types on the reflection spectra and albedos of Earthlike extrasolar planets at low resolution for various types of central stars. Results. We find that the high scattering efficiency of clouds causes both the amount of reflected light and the related depths of the absorption bands to be substantially larger than in comparison to the respective clear sky conditions. Low-level clouds have a stronger impact on the spectra than the high-level clouds because of their much larger scattering optical depth. The detectability of molecular features in near the UV – near IR wavelength range is strongly enhanced by the presence of clouds. However, the detectability of various chemical species in low-resolution reflection spectra depends strongly on the spectral energy distribution of the incident stellar radiation. In contrast to the reflection spectra the spectral planetary albedos enable molecular features to be detected without a direct influence of the spectral energy distribution of the stellar radiation. Here, clouds increase the contrast between the radiation fluxes of the planets and the respective central star by about one order of magnitude, but the resulting contrast values are still too low to be observable with the current generation of telescopes.

The Dependence of the Ice-Albedo Feedback on Atmospheric Properties

Ice-albedo feedback is a potentially important destabilizing effect for the climate of terrestrial planets. It is based on the positive feedback between decreasing surface temperatures, an increase of snow and ice cover, and an associated increase in planetary albedo, which then further decreases surface temperature. A recent study shows that for M stars, the strength of the ice-albedo feedback is reduced due to the strong spectral dependence of stellar radiation and snow/ice albedos; that is, M stars primarily emit in the near IR, where the snow and ice albedo is low, and less in the visible, where the snow/ice albedo is high. This study investigates the influence of the atmosphere (in terms of surface pressure and atmospheric composition) on this feedback, since an atmosphere was neglected in previous studies. A plane-parallel radiative transfer model was used for the calculation of planetary albedos. We varied CO₂ partial pressures as well as the H₂O, CH₄, and O₃ content in the atmosphere for planets orbiting Sun-like and M type stars. Results suggest that, for planets around M stars, the ice-albedo effect is significantly reduced, compared to planets around Sun-like stars. Including the effects of an atmosphere further suppresses the sensitivity to the ice-albedo effect. Atmospheric key properties such as surface pressure, but also the abundance of radiative trace gases, can considerably change the strength of the ice-albedo feedback. For dense CO₂ atmospheres of the order of a few to tens of bar, atmospheric rather than surface properties begin to dominate the planetary radiation budget. At high CO₂ pressures, the ice-albedo feedback is strongly reduced for planets around M stars. The presence of trace amounts of H₂O and CH₄ in the atmosphere also weakens the ice-albedo effect for both stellar types considered. For planets around Sun-like stars, O₃ could also lead to a very strong decrease of the ice-albedo feedback at high CO₂ pressures.

Infrared radiative transfer in atmospheres of Earth-like planets around F, G, K, and M stars - I. Clear-sky thermal emission spectra and weighting functions

Context. The atmosphere of Earth-like extrasolar planets orbiting different types of stars is influenced by the spectral dependence of the incoming stellar radiation. The changes in structure and composition affect atmospheric radiation, hence the spectral appearance of these exoplanets. Aims. We provide a thorough investigation of infrared radiative transfer in cloud-free exoplanets atmospheres by not only analyzing the planetary spectral appearance but also discussing the radiative processes behind the spectral features in detail and identifying the regions in the atmosphere that contribute most at a given wavelength. Methods. Using cloud-free scenarios provided by a one-dimensional radiative-convective steady-state atmospheric model, we computed high-resolution infrared transmission and emission spectra, as well as weighting functions for exoplanets located within the habitable zone of F, G, K, and M stars by means of a line-by-line molecular absorption model and a Schwarzschild solver for the radiative transfer. The monochromatic spectra were convolved with appropriate spectral response functions to study the effects of finite instrument resolution. Results. Spectra of the exoplanets of F, G, K, and M stars were analyzed in the 4.5 μm N2O band, the 4.3 μm and 15 μm CO2 bands, the 7.7 μm CH4 band, the 6.3 μm H2O band, and the 9.6 μm O3 band. Differences in the state of the atmosphere of the exoplanets clearly show up in the thermal infrared spectra; absorption signatures known from Earth can be transformed to emission features (and vice versa). Weighting functions show that radiation in the absorption bands of the uniformly mixed gases (CO2, CH4, N2O) and (to some extent) ozone comes from the stratosphere and upper troposphere, and also indicate that changes in the atmospheres can shift sources of thermal radiation to lower or higher altitudes. Molecular absorption and/or emission features can be identified in the high-resolution spectra of all planets and in most reduced resolution spectra. Conclusions. Insight into radiative transfer processes is essential for analyzing exoplanet spectral observations; for instance, understanding the impact of the temperature profile (nb. non-existence of an inversion) on the CO2 bands facilitates their interpretation and can help avoid false positive or negative estimates of O3. The detailed analysis of the radiation source and sink regions could even help give an indication about the feasibility of identifying molecular signatures in cloud-covered planets, i.e. radiation mainly coming from the upper atmosphere is less likely to be hidden by clouds. Infrared radiative transfer and biomarker detectability in cloud-covered exoplanets will be presented in a companion paper.

Infrared radiative transfer in atmospheres of Earth-like planets around F, G, K, and M stars - II. Thermal emission spectra influenced by clouds

Context: Clouds play an important role in the radiative transfer of planetary atmospheres because of the influence they have on the different molecular signatures through scattering and absorption processes. Furthermore, they are important modulators of the radiative energy budget affecting surface and atmospheric temperatures. Aims. We present a detailed study of the thermal emission of cloud-covered planets orbiting F-, G-, K-, and M-type stars. These Earth-like planets include planets with the same gravity and total irradiation as Earth, but can differ significantly in the upper atmosphere. The impact of single-layered clouds is analyzed to determine what information on the atmosphere may be lost or gained. The planetary spectra are studied at different instrument resolutions and compared to previously calculated low-resolution spectra. Methods. A line-by-line molecular absorption model coupled with a multiple scattering radiative transfer solver was used to calculate the spectra of cloud-covered planets. The atmospheric profiles used in the radiation calculations were obtained with a radiative-convective climate model combined with a parametric cloud description. Results. In the high-resolution flux spectra, clouds changed the intensities and shapes of the bands of CO2, N2O, H2O, CH4, and O3. Some of these bands turned out to be highly reduced by the presence of clouds, which causes difficulties for their detection. The most affected spectral bands resulted for the planet orbiting the F-type star. Clouds could lead to false negative interpretations for the different molecular species investigated. However, at low resolution, clouds were found to be crucial for detecting some of the molecular bands that could not be distinguished in the cloud-free atmospheres. The CO2 bands were found to be less affected by clouds. Radiation sources were visualized with weighting functions at high resolution. Conclusions. Knowledge of the atmospheric temperature profile is essential for estimating the composition and important for avoiding false negative detection of biomarkers, in both cloudy and clear-sky conditions. In particular, a pronounced temperature contrast between the ozone layer and surface or cloud is needed to detect the molecule. Fortunately, the CO2 bands allow temperature estimation from the upper stratosphere down to the troposphere even in the presence of clouds.

The extrasolar planet GL 581 d: A potentially habitable planet?

Aims. The planetary system around the M star Gliese 581 contains at least three close-in potentially low-mass planets, Gl 581c, d, and e. In order to address the question of the habitability of Gl 581d, we performed detailed atmospheric modeling studies for several planetary scenarios. Methods. A 1D radiative-convective model was used to calculate temperature and pressure profiles of model atmospheres, which we assumed to be composed of molecular nitrogen, water, and carbon dioxide. The model allows for changing surface pressures caused by evaporation/condensation of water and carbon dioxide. Furthermore, the treatment of the energy transport has been improved in the model to account in particular for high CO2, high-pressure Super-Earth conditions. Results. For four high-pressure scenarios of our study, the resulting surface temperatures were above 273 K, indicating a potential habitability of the planet. These scenarios include three CO2-dominated atmospheres (95% CO2 concentration with 5, 10, and 20 bar surface pressure) and a high-pressure CO2-enriched atmosphere (5% CO2 concentration with 20 bar surface pressure). For all other considered scenarios, the calculated Gl 581d surface temperatures were below the freezing point of water, suggesting that Gl 581d would not be habitable then. The results for our CO2-dominated scenarios confirm very recent model results by Wordsworth et al. (2010). However, our model calculations imply that also atmospheres that are not CO2-dominated (i.e., 5% vmr instead of 95% vmr) could result in habitable conditions for Gl 581d.