Eddie T. C. Lam

Service Quality Assessment Scale (SQAS): An Instrument for Evaluating Service Quality of Health-Fitness Clubs

This study was designed to develop the Service Quality Assessment Scale to evaluate the service quality of health-fitness clubs. Through a review of literature, field observations, interviews, modified application of the Delphi technique, and a pilot study, a preliminary scale with 46 items was formulated. The preliminary scale was administered to members of one health-fitness club. From exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the pilot test data, 6 factors emerged. Next the revised scale (reduced to a 40-item scale) was administered to 10 health-fitness clubs (N = 1,202). The data set was split into halves: one for EFA and the other for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Six factors emerged in the EFA: Staff, Program, Locker Room, Physical Facility, Workout Facility, and Child Care. The fit indexes from the CFA indicated that the model was permissible (e.g., Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = .07, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual = .05, Comparative Fit Index = .87). All the factors had acceptable alpha and composite reliability coefficients. The model was then tested for invariance across gender; 9 items were eliminated due to a lack of invariance for factor loadings or tau coefficients. The 31-item scale with 6 factors displayed sound psychometric properties and invariance for factor loadings and tau coefficients, and can be utilized to evaluate service-quality issues in various health-fitness club settings.

General Market Demand Variables Associated with Professional Sport Consumption

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between general market demands and consumption levels of professional sport consumers. This study was accomplished through: (a) validating the theoretical constructs of general market demand variables by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis; (b) examining the predictability of general market demand factors to consumption levels of live and televised sporting events; and (c) investigating the relationships between sociodemographic and general market demand factors. Five hundred and twenty-five residents of a major southern US city were interviewed using a questionnaire that included eight sociodemographic variables, 12 market demand variables under three factors (Game Attractiveness, Economic Consideration, and Marketing Promotion), and 10 professional sporting event consumption variables. The factor structure of the general market demand variables was confirmed. Regression analyses revealed that market demand factors were positively (p Keywords: Market demands, game consumption, professional sports Introduction Professional sport teams have two primary product markets, ticket sales and broadcasting rights, which account for over 80 per cent of team revenue. Teams also have secondary revenue producers such as parking, concessions, programs, endorsements, uses of team logos, and media productions (Leonard, 1997; Noll, 1991). The relationship between live and televised events is reciprocal. Each has influenced and depended on the other for its popularity and commercial success (Jhally, 1989; Whannel, 1992). Spectator attraction and retention at both live and televised events are very critical to the financial success of teams. Nevertheless, spectator retention is the most common problem facing the sport industry (Sawyer & Smith, 1999). Sport games are the core product function of professional sport teams. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in studying consumer demands of the core products. Researchers (Greenstein & Marcum, 1981; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983; Zhang, Pease, Hui & Michaud, 1995) have generally grouped variables affecting spectator game consumption into the following categories: game attractiveness (e.g. athlete skills, team records, league standing, record-breaking performance, closeness of competition, team history in a community, schedule, convenience, and stadium quality); marketing promotions (e.g. publicity, special events, entertainment programs, and giveaways); and economic considerations (e.g. ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, income, and competition of other sport events). The majority of previous studies have focused on game attractiveness variables, while the other two areas have been studied to a lesser extent (e.g. Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Marcum & Greenstein, 1985; Noll, 1974,1991; Whitney, 1988; Zak, Huang & Siegfried, 1979). Game attractiveness and marketing promotion variables have generally been found to be positively related to game consumption (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Becker & Suls, 1983; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Jones, 1984; Marcum & Greenstein, 1985; Noll, 1991; Whitney, 1988; Zhang et al., 1995). For economic variables, income and ticket discounts have consistently been shown to be positively related to game consumption, while ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, and competition from other sport events have generally been shown to be negatively related to game consumption (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Bird, 1982; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Noll, 1974; Siegfried & Eisenberg, 1980; Zhang & Smith, 1997; Zhang, Smith, Pease & Jambor, 1997). …

Psychometric Properties of the Eating Attitudes Test

The study was designed to examine the construct validity and internal consistency reliability of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Two widely adopted EAT models were tested: three-factor (Dieting, Bulimia and Food Preoccupation, and Oral Control) with 26 items (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982), and four-factor (Dieting, Oral Control, Awareness of Food Contents, and Food Preoccupation) with 20 items (Koslowsky et al., 1992). Research participants included two samples of female college students (calibration N = 785, cross-validation N = 298). Maximum Likelihood estimation method was adopted. The fit indexes from the three-factor EAT-26 represented unacceptable model fit (RMSEA = .11, SRMR = .11, CFI = .73, AGFI = .74). Similarly, the fit indexes from the four-factor EAT-20 model provided a poor fit (RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .07, CFI = .85, AGFI = .83); however, after eliminating four items with low factor loadings, the four-factor EAT model with 16 items was found to have an acceptable fit (RMSEA = .08, SRMR = .05, CFI = .91, AGFI = .88). The EAT-16 model was then crossvalidated on an independent sample and was found to have acceptable configural and metric invariance as well as internal consistency reliability.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Spectator Decision-Making Inventory (SDMI)

The purpose of this study was to re-examine the factor structure of the Spectator Decision-Making Inventory through a confirmatory factor analysis. The inventory was developed by Zhang, Pease, Hui, and Michaud (1995), to measure factors affecting the attendance of mens professional basketball games, and consists of 15 items under 4 factors: Game Promotion, Home Team, Opposing Team, and Schedule Convenience. Spectators (N = 685), from 5 regular season home games of a National Basketball Association team, responded to the inventory. Procedures in the Windows LISREL 8.12 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993a) computer program were utilized. The maximum likelihood estimation was adopted. With some minor respecifications by removing 2 items, the model provided a good fit to the data (e.g., RMSEA = .10, SRMR = .056, GFI = .90, CFI = .91), supporting a 4-factor structure. Researchers and practitioners may utilize the inventory to conduct in-arena or mail-out surveys.

The Development and Validation of a Racquetball Skills Test Battery for Young Adult Beginners

This study was designed to develop a racquetball skills test battery for young adult beginners. Based on a review of literature and the content validity phase, 5 racquetball skills components with 8 test items were formulated: service placement (left and right), power drive (forehand and backhand), power shot placement (forehand and backhand), ceiling shot, and wall rally. Participants (N = 131) were 87 male and 44 female college students who were provided two 90-min sessions of practice and preparation 1 week before the testing. The test was conducted on 2 official size racquetball courts. Each test item had 20 trials (3 trials for wall rally), and each was administered twice within 1 week. A single round-robin tournament was conducted for male and female participants, respectively. Participants were simultaneously evaluated on their overall skill levels by a trained evaluator using a subjective 5-point rating scale. Data on subjective rating and tournament standing were used as criterion variables for examining the test validity. Intercorrelations revealed that all test items had validity coefficients equal to or greater than .50, except for 2 items, service placement to the left and the right, which were dropped from further analysis. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the remaining 6 skills test items were predictive of the 2 criterion variables, with the multiple correlations equal to .67 and .68 for males and .61 and .75 for females. Using factorial repeated measures analysis of variance, generalizability reliability was computed. The G coefficients for the items ranged from .61 to .84. The D studies revealed that testing over a minimum of 2 days would be the best test protocol for most racquetball skills test items. To achieve sufficient reliability (i.e., G coefficient >>.70), the minimum number of trials administered each day was suggested for each item.

An Innovative Shortened Bilingual Version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS-SBV):

The purpose of this study was to develop the POMS-SBV using a sample of healthy individuals. Participants (N = 1,923) were elementary and high school students from Hong Kong and Beijing. Item elimination was based on face validity and the impact of those items on the internal consistency of the subscales. The final version of the POMS-SBV has 38 items. A strong positive relationship (r = 0.94 to 0.97) was found between the six dimensions of the POMS-SBV and that of the original POMS. Both scales have identical overall internal consistency and Total Mood Disturbance scores, yet the POMS-SBV reduces greatly the response burden necessary for completion. It is concluded that the POMS-SBV can be an ideal alternative to the original POMS.

Development of an Evaluation Scale to Measure Participant Perceptions of After-School Enrichment Programs

The purpose of this study was to develop the Scale for After-School Enrichment Programs (SASEP) to assess the quality of after-school programs by participants. This study was completed over a 3-year period and through 3 phases: (a) formulation of the preliminary scale, (b) an exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and (c) a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). During Year 1, the preliminary SASEP with 27 items with 3-point Likert response scales was formulated through a review of literature, open-ended surveys of program participants in 2 urban after-school programs (N = 754), and test of content validity. During the following 2 years, program participants (N = 4,091) responded to the preliminary scale at the end of each annual program. The data set was randomly split into two halves: one for EFA and the other for CFA. Using the criteria of an eigenvalue equal to or greater than 1.0 and a factor loading equal to or greater than .30 without double loading in the EFA with alpha extraction and promax rotation, 3 factors emerged with all 27 items retained: Personal and Social Benefits (11 items), School and Community Benefits (9 items), and Overall Program Benefits (7 items). These factors were consistent with the general program objectives. Based on the weighted least squares (WLS) estimation method in CFA, the 3-factor model was confirmed as providing good fit to the data. Discussions were undertaken in the context of the scale development and its application potential in after-school program evaluations.

Efficacy of massage on muscle soreness, perceived recovery, physiological restoration and physical performance in male bodybuilders.

Abstract It is believed that sport massage after intensive exercise might improve power and perceptual recovery in athletes. However, few studies have been done in this area. This study aimed to examine the effect of massage on the performance of bodybuilders. Thirty experienced male bodybuilders were randomly assigned to either a massage group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15). Both groups performed five repetition sets at 75–77% of 1RM of knee extensor and flexor muscle groups. The massage group then received a 30-min massage after the exercise protocol while the control group maintained their normal passive recovery. Criteria under investigation included: plasma creatine kinase (CK) level, agility test, vertical jump test, isometric torque test, and perception of soreness. All variables were measured over 6 time periods: baseline, immediately after the DOMS inducing protocol, right after the massage, and 24, 48, and 72 h after the massage. Both groups showed significant (P < .001) decreases in jumping, agility performance, and isometric torque, but significant (P < .001) increases in CK and muscle soreness levels. The massage group in general demonstrated a better recovery rate. As such, a post-exercise massage session can improve the exercise performance and recovery rate in male bodybuilders after intensive exercise.

Development of the Scale for Program Facilitators to Assess the Effectiveness of After School Achievement Programs

The purpose of this study was to develop the Scale for Program Facilitators (SPF) to assess the effectiveness of after school achievement programs through four steps: (a) identification of a theoretical framework, (b) formulation of the initial scale, (c) test of content validity, and (d) conducting confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). A comprehensive review of literature revealed that after school programs commonly have four key objectives: (a) Scholastic Development, (b) Social Behavior, (c) Caring Environment, and (d) Personal Inspiration. The preliminary scale with 18 items was formulated by following these objectives as the theoretical framework, along with conducting a review of literature, on-site observations, interviews with program facilitators, and conducting a test of content validity by a panel of experts. Research participants (N = 2,995) were program facilitators, who were asked to use the preliminary SPF scale to evaluate the program attendees under their direct supervision. Adopting the Maximum Likelihood and the Weighted Least Squares estimation methods in the CFA, the four-factor model was confirmed providing good fit to the data. Discussions were made in the context of the scale development and its potential application in evaluating after school programs.

The application of a feasible exercise training program in the office setting

BACKGROUND Previous research support the claim that people who work in offices and sit for a long time are particularly prone to musculoskeletal disorders. OBJECTIVE The main objective of this paper is to introduce an exercise training program designed to decrease muscle stiffness and pain that can be performed in the office setting. METHODS Forty healthy office workers (age: 28±5.3 years old; body mass: 87.2±10.2 kg; height: 1.79±0.15 m) apart from suffering from any sub-clinical symptoms of muscle and joint stiffness, and who had at least two years of experience in office work were chosen and randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 20) or a control group (n = 20). The experimental group performed the exercise training program three times a week for 11 weeks. The Cornell Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire was used to measure the pain levels in the neck, shoulders, and lower back areas. The Borg CR-10 Scale was used to measure their perceived exertion when doing the exercises, and a goniometer was used to measure the changes in range of motion (ROM) of the neck, hips, knees, and shoulders. RESULTS The overall results indicated that the exercise program could significantly (p < 0.05) reduce the neck, shoulders, and lower back pains of the participants in the exercise group while those in the control group showed no improvement in those pains. There were significant (p < 0.05) increases in the ROM of the hips, the neck, both knees and shoulders in the exercise group. Participants showed significant (p = 0.011) decreases in perceived exertion scores after the exercises. CONCLUSIONS The exercise training program designed in this study not only can effectively reduce neck, shoulders, and lower back pains, but also can improve the ROM or flexibility of the office workers.