Elisabetta Canali

Development of the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) as a Pain Assessment Tool in Horses Undergoing Routine Castration

Background The assessment of pain is critical for the welfare of horses, in particular when pain is induced by common management procedures such as castration. Existing pain assessment methods have several limitations, which reduce the applicability in everyday life. Assessment of facial expression changes, as a novel means of pain scoring, may offer numerous advantages and overcome some of these limitations. The objective of this study was to develop and validate a standardised pain scale based on facial expressions in horses (Horse Grimace Scale [HGS]). Methodology/Principal Findings Forty stallions were assigned to one of two treatments and all animals underwent routine surgical castration under general anaesthesia. Group A (n = 19) received a single injection of Flunixin immediately before anaesthesia. Group B (n = 21) received Flunixin immediately before anaesthesia and then again, as an oral administration, six hours after the surgery. In addition, six horses were used as anaesthesia controls (C). These animals underwent non-invasive, indolent procedures, received the same treatment as group A, but did not undergo surgical procedures that could be accompanied with surgical pain. Changes in behaviour, composite pain scale (CPS) scores and horse grimace scale (HGS) scores were assessed before and 8-hours post-procedure. Only horses undergoing castration (Groups A and B) showed significantly greater HGS and CPS scores at 8-hours post compared to pre operatively. Further, maintenance behaviours such as explorative behaviour and alertness were also reduced. No difference was observed between the two analgesic treatment groups. Conclusions The Horse Grimace Scale potentially offers an effective and reliable method of assessing pain following routine castration in horses. However, auxiliary studies are required to evaluate different painful conditions and analgesic schedules.

Rabbit nest construction and its relationship with litter development

Abstract The influence of maternal prenatal behaviour and of the micro-climate on the development of young rabbits was evaluated for three successive litters of female New Zealand White rabbits. The quality of the straw and hair nests produced for each litter and several characteristics of the litter up to weaning at 30 days of age were recorded. The quality of the straw nest improved from the first to the third parturition, whereas the hair nest seemed to be influenced by climatic conditions alone, especially temperature. The importance of nest building on growth and survival of young until the thirtieth day of life was confirmed and the straw shell was identified as the more plastic component of the nest.

Equine on-farm welfare assessment: a review of animal-based indicators

The adaptability of horses and donkeys to different types of activity has seen the European equine industry become an important economic sector, giving rise to increasing concern regarding equine welfare. As part of the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) project, this review focuses on scientific literature to find potential animal-based welfare indicators — the initial step in developing a valid, reliable and feasible on-farm welfare assessment protocol for equines. Forty-nine indicators were considered and classified in accordance with the four Principles and twelve Criteria developed by Welfare Quality®. Only practical indicators specifically for on-farm use were included, those requiring the use of specific instruments or laboratory analysis were excluded. Academic scientists, partners and collaborators of the AWIN project, discussed and agreed on validity, reliability, on-farm feasibility and acceptance by farmers for each indicator. Some aspects of equine welfare have been thoroughly investigated and appear to have indicators ready for on-farm use (eg ‘absence of prolonged hunger’, ‘absence of injuries and diseases’). On the other hand, a lack of animal-based measures were identified for other Criteria such as ‘absence of pain’ and ‘positive emotional state’. Ongoing research within the AWIN project has begun exploring some of the aforementioned Criteria — these preliminary results of promising indicators have been included (eg Horse Grimace Scale and Qualitative Behaviour Assessment). Further research should address the validity and reliability of indicators, such as human-animal relationship tests and signs of cold stress. As well as for working equines, the development and application of a welfare assessment protocol could be the first step for enhancing on-farm equine welfare.

Measurement and time domain analysis of heart rate variability in dairy cattle.

explained by hepatocytic degeneration and necrosis, with loss of urea cycle enzymes and secondary hyperammonaemia (Vallema and others 1999), although a direct influence of cobalt or vitamin B12 deficiency on brain energy metabolism in the development of lesions cannot be excluded (Suttle 1988). The possibility of cobalt deficiency should be investigated whenever illthrifty lambs are presented soon after an improvement in their diet, with non-specific neurological signs such as head pressing, ataxia and ear twitching. It has been suggested that ovine white liver disease may be triggered by factors such as ingestion of pasture rich in readily digestible carbohydrates (Ulvund 1990). In this study, it is possible that the acute fatty liver changes and subsequent hepatic encephalopathy were triggered by the sudden change in diet from rough hill pasture to sugar beet pulp. While a gradual improvement in diet is preferable to a sudden change, this is not always practical. A general recommendation is therefore made that any cause of illthrift is first diagnosed and corrected before implementing sudden dietary changes.

Welfare issues of horses: an overview and practical recommendations

Abstract The largest proportion of the world’s horses are still used for work in agriculture and traction, however in the western countries they are increasingly kept for recreational and social purposes, breeding, sport and competition. It is often assumed that horses enjoys better farming conditions than other species, yet they have specific needs which should be fulfilled in order to have a proper welfare. This paper will review the main welfare issues of horses and the following aspects will be considered: nutrition, housing and management, clinical problems, behaviour problems, training and riding, transportation, measuring welfare. Horses are social animals that live in groups in close contact with conspecifics. They spend most of their waking hours moving at walk, grazing and eating grass. Some of the constraints imposed on horses during the last centuries conflict to their naturally evolved behaviour. Effective and humane handling of horses positively affects many important aspects like the safety of man, the performance level and the welfare of horses. It is an essential condition for keeping horses that handlers, riders, trainers, farriers and veterinarians have proper knowledge of the behaviour of the horse in order to fulfil their natural needs and guarantee their welfare.

Behavioral problems in Italian saddle horses

Abstract A survey was carried out in 25 riding centers to evaluate the prevalence of behavioral problems among saddle horses and to investigate the relationship between these and individual traits, training and management of the affected horses. Seven percent of the 650 horses examined had some kind of behavioral problems, and crib-biting was the most frequent. These behavioral problems seemed to be related to the sort of training and management. Show jumping horses tended to be affected simultaneously by more than one behavioral problem and to be more aggressive towards other horses. Although show jumpers were ridden more often, they had fewer opportunities to graze. The prevalence of behavioral problems was lower among those horses ridden Western style than among those ridden English style; the latter employs more hand to bit contact. The study also showed that horses groomed and ridden by one and the same person had more problems than horses groomed and ridden also by different people.

Welfare problems in alpine dairy cattle farms in Alto Adige (Eastern Italian Alps)

Abstract The present investigation aims to highlight the main welfare problems of dairy cattle farms in Alto Adige (North Eastern Italy) by means of animal based indicators. The relationship between animal based and resource based (housing and management) indicators were investigated in order to obtain useful information for improving welfare levels in mountain husbandry systems. We highlighted some welfare problems, especially in tie-stalls, mainly related to stall and feed trough dimensions and design; however, in these situations good stockmenship seems to be able to compensate for structural lacks.

Relationship between behaviour and heart rate as an indicator of stress in domestic sheep under different housing systems

Four adult Bergamasca rams were used in three types of housing: (1) common enclosures, consisting of a wooden paddock of 3 m × 7 m, partially covered by a shed; (2) metabolic cages of 57 cm × 135 cm; (3) fixed housing, with the animals tied by a rope about l m in length to a ring fixed on a wall. Heart rate was measured by means of a biotelemetric system during free standing, free lying, restrained standing and restrained lying, feeding, mastication, ruminating and drinking. The results show that rams, housing system and the interaction between behaviour and housing system affected heart rate (P < 0.001) during restrained standing and restrained lying. Heart rate in metabolic cages was lower (P < 0.001) than in other housing systems. Behaviour (considering only restrained standing and restrained lying) did not affect heart rate. Nevertheless, the interaction between behaviour and housing system showed that, within each housing system, heart rate during restrained standing was always higher than during restrained lying (P < 0.001). In all types of housing systems, a higher heart rate was observed in the second measurement (P < 0.001), which implies a state of greater agitation in the animals, probably due to the absence of a constant and familiar figure in the present experiment. From a methodological point of view, this study underlines the importance and efficacy of the determination of heart rate as an indicator of the reactive state of sheep.

Buffalo behavioural response to machine milking in early lactation

Abstract Buffalo farming in Italy is traditionally oriented towards mozzarella cheese production and over the last decade it has been rapidly increased. As a result, intensive techniques and mechanisation of farm activities have been introduced. Those sudden changes in rearing techniques have aroused a general concern about buffaloes welfare and its possible consequences on products quality.Human-animal interactions are recognized to have an impact on productivity, behaviour and welfare, particularly in dairy farms, where the milking process involves a close interaction with a human handler. Focusing on the first month of lactation, this preliminary study aimed at evidencing buffalo behavioural responses to machine milking. Relationship between behaviour and oxytocin administrations, often performed to allow milk let down, has been also investigated. The experiment included 8 multiparous and 6 primiparous buffaloes, calving in the same period. Starting from the first entrance in the milking parlour, the animals were followed two days/ week during the morning milking for the first 5 weeks of lactation. Behaviour observation was performed following a “focal animal sampling” (continuous recording) technique. Proportional frequencies of the following behaviours were calculated: kicking, stepping, defecating, urinating, vocalizing, pulling the teat cup off the teats. The exogenous oxytocin administration at milking was recorded. Pearson Chi-Square test was used to verify the presence of differences between primiparous and multiparous cows’ behaviour at milking. Cochran’s Q test was used to assess the variability of behaviour over time and a binomial regression was performed in order to verify the correlations between animal behaviours and the need to administer oxytocin. Considering lactation number, every behavioural pattern in primiparous cows, except for stepping, resulted to be more frequently performed (36.67% vs 24.36% for kicking; 5% vs 2.56% for defecating; 11.67% vs 5.13% for pulling the teat cup off the teats).The behaviour of urinating (48.33% vs 11.54%) proved to have a significantly higher mean frequency of occurrence compared to the multiparous one (P<0.001). The frequency of oxytocin administration showed a high variability over time (P<0.001), soon decreasing, while the selected behaviours proved to be more stable in time, except for kicking and urinating (P<0.05). Some correlations between animal behaviour at milking and oxytocin administration were found; particularly kicking, stepping and urinating appeared to be significantly related to the requirement of exogenous molecule (P<0.001). The occurrence of behaviours considered as indicators of acute stress and their correlation with oxytocin administration are a clear proof of the machine milking impact on buffaloes welfare and productivity.

Social interactions and induced behavioural reactions in milk-fed female calves

Abstract This study had two purposes. In the first part we observed the feeding rhythms and behaviour, and the relationships between different physical parameters and behaviour, of Friesian calves reared in groups and fed milk substitute powder from a single automatic feeding machine. In the second part, calves of two different breeds (Friesian and Ottonese), reared and fed in the same way as those of the first part of the study, were compared individually at 2 and 3 months of age in an open-field test. The results indicate that there are both bi-directional and uni-directional encounters when the animals are young, and it is not possible to detect any precise dominance hierarchy. We were able to detect correlations between levels of activity, dominance values, physical traits and feeding behaviour. In the open-field test, the two breeds reacted differently, indicating that there may be differences in their capacity for adaptation.