Michela Minero

Development of the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) as a Pain Assessment Tool in Horses Undergoing Routine Castration

Background The assessment of pain is critical for the welfare of horses, in particular when pain is induced by common management procedures such as castration. Existing pain assessment methods have several limitations, which reduce the applicability in everyday life. Assessment of facial expression changes, as a novel means of pain scoring, may offer numerous advantages and overcome some of these limitations. The objective of this study was to develop and validate a standardised pain scale based on facial expressions in horses (Horse Grimace Scale [HGS]). Methodology/Principal Findings Forty stallions were assigned to one of two treatments and all animals underwent routine surgical castration under general anaesthesia. Group A (n = 19) received a single injection of Flunixin immediately before anaesthesia. Group B (n = 21) received Flunixin immediately before anaesthesia and then again, as an oral administration, six hours after the surgery. In addition, six horses were used as anaesthesia controls (C). These animals underwent non-invasive, indolent procedures, received the same treatment as group A, but did not undergo surgical procedures that could be accompanied with surgical pain. Changes in behaviour, composite pain scale (CPS) scores and horse grimace scale (HGS) scores were assessed before and 8-hours post-procedure. Only horses undergoing castration (Groups A and B) showed significantly greater HGS and CPS scores at 8-hours post compared to pre operatively. Further, maintenance behaviours such as explorative behaviour and alertness were also reduced. No difference was observed between the two analgesic treatment groups. Conclusions The Horse Grimace Scale potentially offers an effective and reliable method of assessing pain following routine castration in horses. However, auxiliary studies are required to evaluate different painful conditions and analgesic schedules.

Equine on-farm welfare assessment: a review of animal-based indicators

The adaptability of horses and donkeys to different types of activity has seen the European equine industry become an important economic sector, giving rise to increasing concern regarding equine welfare. As part of the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) project, this review focuses on scientific literature to find potential animal-based welfare indicators — the initial step in developing a valid, reliable and feasible on-farm welfare assessment protocol for equines. Forty-nine indicators were considered and classified in accordance with the four Principles and twelve Criteria developed by Welfare Quality®. Only practical indicators specifically for on-farm use were included, those requiring the use of specific instruments or laboratory analysis were excluded. Academic scientists, partners and collaborators of the AWIN project, discussed and agreed on validity, reliability, on-farm feasibility and acceptance by farmers for each indicator. Some aspects of equine welfare have been thoroughly investigated and appear to have indicators ready for on-farm use (eg ‘absence of prolonged hunger’, ‘absence of injuries and diseases’). On the other hand, a lack of animal-based measures were identified for other Criteria such as ‘absence of pain’ and ‘positive emotional state’. Ongoing research within the AWIN project has begun exploring some of the aforementioned Criteria — these preliminary results of promising indicators have been included (eg Horse Grimace Scale and Qualitative Behaviour Assessment). Further research should address the validity and reliability of indicators, such as human-animal relationship tests and signs of cold stress. As well as for working equines, the development and application of a welfare assessment protocol could be the first step for enhancing on-farm equine welfare.

Measurement and time domain analysis of heart rate variability in dairy cattle.

explained by hepatocytic degeneration and necrosis, with loss of urea cycle enzymes and secondary hyperammonaemia (Vallema and others 1999), although a direct influence of cobalt or vitamin B12 deficiency on brain energy metabolism in the development of lesions cannot be excluded (Suttle 1988). The possibility of cobalt deficiency should be investigated whenever illthrifty lambs are presented soon after an improvement in their diet, with non-specific neurological signs such as head pressing, ataxia and ear twitching. It has been suggested that ovine white liver disease may be triggered by factors such as ingestion of pasture rich in readily digestible carbohydrates (Ulvund 1990). In this study, it is possible that the acute fatty liver changes and subsequent hepatic encephalopathy were triggered by the sudden change in diet from rough hill pasture to sugar beet pulp. While a gradual improvement in diet is preferable to a sudden change, this is not always practical. A general recommendation is therefore made that any cause of illthrift is first diagnosed and corrected before implementing sudden dietary changes.

Welfare issues of horses: an overview and practical recommendations

Abstract The largest proportion of the world’s horses are still used for work in agriculture and traction, however in the western countries they are increasingly kept for recreational and social purposes, breeding, sport and competition. It is often assumed that horses enjoys better farming conditions than other species, yet they have specific needs which should be fulfilled in order to have a proper welfare. This paper will review the main welfare issues of horses and the following aspects will be considered: nutrition, housing and management, clinical problems, behaviour problems, training and riding, transportation, measuring welfare. Horses are social animals that live in groups in close contact with conspecifics. They spend most of their waking hours moving at walk, grazing and eating grass. Some of the constraints imposed on horses during the last centuries conflict to their naturally evolved behaviour. Effective and humane handling of horses positively affects many important aspects like the safety of man, the performance level and the welfare of horses. It is an essential condition for keeping horses that handlers, riders, trainers, farriers and veterinarians have proper knowledge of the behaviour of the horse in order to fulfil their natural needs and guarantee their welfare.

Using the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) to Assess Pain Associated with Acute Laminitis in Horses (Equus caballus)

Simple Summary Acute laminitis is a common equine disease characterized by intense foot pain. This work aimed to investigate whether the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), a facial-expression-based pain coding system, can be usefully applied to assess pain associated with acute laminitis in horses at rest. Ten horses, referred as acute laminitis cases with no prior treatment, were assessed at the admission and at seven days after the initial evaluation and treatment. The authors found that the Horse Grimace Scale is a potentially effective method to assess pain associated with acute laminitis in horses at rest, as horses showing high HGS scores also exhibited higher Obel scores, and veterinarians classified them in a more severe painful state. Abstract Acute laminitis is a common equine disease characterized by intense foot pain, both acutely and chronically. The Obel grading system is the most widely accepted method for describing the severity of laminitis by equine practitioners, however this method requires movement (walk and trot) of the horse, causing further intense pain. The recently developed Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), a facial-expression-based pain coding system, may offer a more effective means of assessing the pain associated with acute laminitis. The aims of this study were: to investigate whether HGS can be usefully applied to assess pain associated with acute laminitis in horses at rest, and to examine if scoring HGS using videos produced similar results as those obtained from still images. Ten horses, referred as acute laminitis cases with no prior treatment, were included in the study. Each horse was assessed using the Obel and HGS (from images and videos) scales: at the admission (before any treatment) and at seven days after the initial evaluation and treatment. The results of this study suggest that HGS is a potentially effective method to assess pain associated with acute laminitis in horses at rest, as horses showing high HGS scores also exhibited higher Obel scores and veterinarians classified them in a more severe painful state. Furthermore, the inter-observer reliability of the HGS total score was good for both still images and video evaluation. There was no significant difference in HGS total scores between the still images and videos, suggesting that there is a possibility of applying the HGS in clinical practice, by observing the horse for a short time. However, further validation studies are needed prior to applying the HGS in a clinical setting.

Welfare problems in alpine dairy cattle farms in Alto Adige (Eastern Italian Alps)

Abstract The present investigation aims to highlight the main welfare problems of dairy cattle farms in Alto Adige (North Eastern Italy) by means of animal based indicators. The relationship between animal based and resource based (housing and management) indicators were investigated in order to obtain useful information for improving welfare levels in mountain husbandry systems. We highlighted some welfare problems, especially in tie-stalls, mainly related to stall and feed trough dimensions and design; however, in these situations good stockmenship seems to be able to compensate for structural lacks.

Buffalo behavioural response to machine milking in early lactation

Abstract Buffalo farming in Italy is traditionally oriented towards mozzarella cheese production and over the last decade it has been rapidly increased. As a result, intensive techniques and mechanisation of farm activities have been introduced. Those sudden changes in rearing techniques have aroused a general concern about buffaloes welfare and its possible consequences on products quality.Human-animal interactions are recognized to have an impact on productivity, behaviour and welfare, particularly in dairy farms, where the milking process involves a close interaction with a human handler. Focusing on the first month of lactation, this preliminary study aimed at evidencing buffalo behavioural responses to machine milking. Relationship between behaviour and oxytocin administrations, often performed to allow milk let down, has been also investigated. The experiment included 8 multiparous and 6 primiparous buffaloes, calving in the same period. Starting from the first entrance in the milking parlour, the animals were followed two days/ week during the morning milking for the first 5 weeks of lactation. Behaviour observation was performed following a “focal animal sampling” (continuous recording) technique. Proportional frequencies of the following behaviours were calculated: kicking, stepping, defecating, urinating, vocalizing, pulling the teat cup off the teats. The exogenous oxytocin administration at milking was recorded. Pearson Chi-Square test was used to verify the presence of differences between primiparous and multiparous cows’ behaviour at milking. Cochran’s Q test was used to assess the variability of behaviour over time and a binomial regression was performed in order to verify the correlations between animal behaviours and the need to administer oxytocin. Considering lactation number, every behavioural pattern in primiparous cows, except for stepping, resulted to be more frequently performed (36.67% vs 24.36% for kicking; 5% vs 2.56% for defecating; 11.67% vs 5.13% for pulling the teat cup off the teats).The behaviour of urinating (48.33% vs 11.54%) proved to have a significantly higher mean frequency of occurrence compared to the multiparous one (P<0.001). The frequency of oxytocin administration showed a high variability over time (P<0.001), soon decreasing, while the selected behaviours proved to be more stable in time, except for kicking and urinating (P<0.05). Some correlations between animal behaviour at milking and oxytocin administration were found; particularly kicking, stepping and urinating appeared to be significantly related to the requirement of exogenous molecule (P<0.001). The occurrence of behaviours considered as indicators of acute stress and their correlation with oxytocin administration are a clear proof of the machine milking impact on buffaloes welfare and productivity.

Welfare assessment of horses: the AWIN approach

The EU-funded Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) research project (2011–2015) aimed to improve animal welfare through the development of practical on-farm animal welfare assessment protocols. The present study describes the application of the AWIN approach to the development of a welfare assessment protocol for horses (Equus caballus). Its development required the following steps: (i) selection of potential welfare indicators; (ii) bridging gaps in knowledge; (iii) consulting stakeholders; and (iv) testing a prototype protocol on-farm. Compared to existing welfare assessment protocols for other species, the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses introduces a number of innovative aspects, such as implementation of a two-level strategy focused on improving on-farm feasibility and the use of electronic tools to achieve standardised data collection and so promote rapid outcomes. Further refinement to the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses is needed in order to firstly gather data from a larger reference population and, secondly, enhance the welfare assessment protocol with reference to different horse housing and husbandry conditions.

Welfare Conditions of Donkeys in Europe: Initial Outcomes from On-Farm Assessment

Simple Summary This paper aims to present the first outcomes of data collected using the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for donkeys in 20 EU donkey facilities. Three assessors evaluated 278 donkeys. The authors found recurrent issues: tendency to obesity, lack of hoof care and irregular positive interactions with humans. The protocol proved to be applicable in different management conditions and for donkeys of different attitude. Abstract This paper is a baseline study to present the initial outcomes of data collected in a sample of EU donkey farms using the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for donkeys, comprehensive of 22 valid, reliable and feasible animal-based indicators. A total of 20 donkey facilities (N = 12 in Italy and N = 8 in United Kingdom) were visited and 278 donkeys of different breed, aged 2–45 years, were assessed. Three assessors underwent a common training period to learn how to perform and score all the indicators included in the protocol. Data was collected using digitalized systems and downloaded to a database. A descriptive statistic for each welfare indicator was calculated. The authors found recurrent issues: 25% of donkeys were moderately over weight; although most of the assessed animals had good quality hoof care, 15.16% of them presented some signs of neglect, such as overgrowth and/or incorrect trimming; 18.05% of donkeys showed an avoidance reaction to an approaching human in the avoidance distance test. The protocol has proven to be applicable in different management conditions and for donkeys of different attitude.

A functional approach to the body condition assessment of lactating donkeys as a tool for welfare evaluation

Background The breeding of lactating donkeys is increasing in Western Europe; with it the evaluation of body condition is growing in importance since it is considered a key principle for their welfare. However, assessment of body condition is a complex task, since several factors are involved. The aim of the present study is to investigate which animal-based indicators are the most reliable to describe the body condition of lactating donkeys. For this purpose, new animal-based indicators, which are easy to measure in field conditions (including body measurements, fatty neck score (FNS), dental score), are recorded and their relationship with BCS (a proxy measure for overall adiposity) was assessed. The ones that reveal an association with the BCS are included in an integrated principal component analysis to understand which are the most related to BCS. Methods Fifty-three healthy lactating donkeys of various breeds, including 7 Martina Franca, 10 Ragusano, 2 Romagnolo and 34 crossbreeds, were evaluated. The animal-based indicators that were recorded were: length (OP, olecranon tuber-pinbone and SH, shoulder-hip), heart girth (HG), abdominal circumference (AC), neck length (NL), neck height (NH) and neck thickness (NT) at 0.50 and neck circumference (NC) at 0.25, 0.50 and 0.75, body condition score (BCS) and fatty neck score (FNS). The owners’ evaluation of the BCS was also considered. A dental assessment was performed and the month of lactation and age of each animal was recorded. Results No correlation was found between BCS and the other morphometric body measurements. On the contrary the FNS was correlated with the morphometric measurements of the neck (positive correlation to 0.50 NH and 0.50 NT, 0.50 NC, 0.75 mean NC, and negative correlation to the mean NC:NH and mean NC:NT, 0.50 NC:NT and 0.50 NC:NH ratios). A significant inverse relationship was identified between BCS and dental score. A Principal Component analysis (PCA) separated the BCS classes on the first principal component (PC1). PC1 revealed a meaningful positive correlation between the BCS and the neck measurements (NT, NH and FNS), with high positive loadings, while a negative correlation was found for dental abnormalities. The owners’ evaluation of BCS was different from the expert evaluator’ assessment, since they tended to give higher score that was slightly but significantly correlated to AC. Discussion A new scoring system, called Fatty Neck Score (FNS), has been proposed for the judgement of the adiposity status of donkey neck. The results suggest that caregivers might use the proposed animal based indicators (BCS, FNS and dental scores) together as a tool for the evaluation of the body condition of lactating donkeys. Our findings highlight that caregivers need to be trained in order to be able to properly record these indicators. Ultimately use of these indicators may help to improve the welfare of lactating donkeys.