Jean Slawinski

Physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners

PURPOSE This study compares the physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners (TC), i.e., runners having a personal best of less than 2 h 11 min for males and 2 h 32 min for females, respectively, versus high-level (HL) (< 2 h 16 min and < 2 h 38 min). METHODS Twenty marathon runners (five TC and HL in each gender) ran 10 km at their best marathon performance velocity (vMarathon) on a level road. This velocity was the target velocity for the Olympic trials they performed 8 wk later. After a rest of 6 min, they ran an all-out 1000-m run to determine the peak oxygen consumption on flat road (.VO(2peak)). RESULTS Marathon performance time (MPT) was inversely correlated with .VO(2peak). (r = -0.73, P < 0.01) and predicted 59% of the variance of MPT. Moreover, TC male marathon runners were less economical because their energy cost of running (Cr) at marathon velocity was significantly higher than that of their counterparts (212 +/- 17 vs 195 +/- 14 mL.km(-1).kg(-1), P = 0.03). For females, no difference was observed for the energetic characteristics between TC and HL marathon runners. However, the velocity reached during the 1000-m run performed after the 10-km run at vMarathon was highly correlated with MPT (r = -0.85, P < 0.001). Concerning training differences, independent of the gender, TC marathon runners trained for more total kilometers per week and at a higher velocity (velocity over 3000 m and 10,000 m). CONCLUSION The high energy output seems to be the discriminating factor for top-class male marathon runners who trained at higher relative intensities.

Intermittent runs at the velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake enables subjects to remain at maximal oxygen uptake for a longer time than intense but submaximal runs

Abstract Interval training consisting of brief high intensity repetitive runs (30 s) alternating with periods of complete rest (30 s) has been reported to be efficient in improving maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) and to be tolerated well even by untrained persons. However, these studies have not investigated the effects of the time spent at V˙O2max which could be an indicator of the benefit of training. It has been reported that periods of continuous running at a velocity intermediate between that of the lactate threshold (vLT) and that associated with V˙O2max (vV˙ O2max) can allow subjects to reach V˙O2max due to an additional slow component of oxygen uptake. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the times spent at V˙O2max during an interval training programme and during continuous strenuous runs. Eight long-distance runners took part in three maximal tests on a synthetic track (400 m) whilst breathing through a portable, telemetric metabolic analyser: they comprised firstly, an incremental test which determined vLT, V˙O2max [59.8 (SD 5.4) ml · min−1 · kg−1], vV˙ O2max [18.5 (SD 1.2) km · h−1], secondly, an interval training protocol consisting of alternately running at 100% and at 50% of vV˙ O2max (30 s each); and thirdly, a continuous high intensity run at vLT + 50% of the difference between vLT and vV˙ O2max [i.e. vΔ50: 16.9 (SD 1.00) km · h−1 and 91.3 (SD 1.6)% vV˙ O2max]. The first and third tests were performed in random order and at 2-day intervals. In each case the subjects warmed-up for 15 min at 50% of vV˙ O2max. The results showed that in more than half of the cases the vΔ50 run allowed the subjects to reach V˙O2max, but the time spent specifically at V˙O2max was much less than that during the alternating low/high intensity exercise protocol [2 min 42 s (SD 3 min 09 s) for vΔ50 run vs 7 min 51 s (SD 6 min 38 s) in 19 (SD 5) interval runs]. The blood lactate responses were less pronounced in the interval runs than for the vΔ50 runs, but not significantly so [6.8 (SD 2.2) mmol · l−1 vs 7.5 (SD 2.1) mmol · l−1]. These results do not allow us to speculate as to the chronic effects of these two types of training at V˙O2max.

Sprint mechanics in world-class athletes: a new insight into the limits of human locomotion

The objective of this study was to characterize the mechanics of maximal running sprint acceleration in high‐level athletes. Four elite (100‐m best time 9.95–10.29 s) and five sub‐elite (10.40–10.60 s) sprinters performed seven sprints in overground conditions. A single virtual 40‐m sprint was reconstructed and kinetics parameters were calculated for each step using a force platform system and video analyses. Anteroposterior force (FY), power (PY), and the ratio of the horizontal force component to the resultant (total) force (RF, which reflects the orientation of the resultant ground reaction force for each support phase) were computed as a function of velocity (V). FY‐V, RF‐V, and PY‐V relationships were well described by significant linear (mean R2 of 0.892 ± 0.049 and 0.950 ± 0.023) and quadratic (mean R2 = 0.732 ± 0.114) models, respectively. The current study allows a better understanding of the mechanics of the sprint acceleration notably by modeling the relationships between the forward velocity and the main mechanical key variables of the sprint. As these findings partly concern world‐class sprinters tested in overground conditions, they give new insights into some aspects of the biomechanical limits of human locomotion.

Kinematic and kinetic comparisons of elite and well-trained sprinters during sprint start.

Slawinski, J, Bonnefoy, A, Levêque, JM, Ontanon, G, Riquet, A, Dumas, R, and Chèze, L. Kinematic and kinetic comparisons of elite and well-trained sprinters during sprint start. J Strength Cond Res 24(4): 896-905, 2010-The purpose of this study was to compare the main kinematic, kinetic, and dynamic parameters of elite and well-trained sprinters during the starting block phase and the 2 subsequent steps. Six elite sprinters (10.06-10.43 s/100 m) and 6 well-trained sprinters (11.01-11.80 s/100 m) equipped with 63 passive reflective markers performed 4 maximal 10 m sprint starts on an indoor track. An opto-electronic motion analysis system consisting of 12 digital cameras (250 Hz) was used to record 3D marker trajectories. At the times “on your marks,” “set,” “clearing the block,” and “landing and toe-off of the first and second step,” the horizontal position of the center of mass (CM), its velocity (XCM and VCM), and the horizontal position of the rear and front hand (XHand_rear and XHand_front) were calculated. During the pushing phase on the starting block and the 2 first steps, the rate of force development and the impulse (Fimpulse) were also calculated. The main results showed that at each time XCM and VCM were significantly greater in elite sprinters. Moreover, during the pushing phase on the block, the rate of force development and Fimpulse were significantly greater in elite sprinters (respectively, 15,505 ± 5,397 N·s−1 and 8,459 ± 3,811 N·s−1 for the rate of force development; 276.2 ± 36.0 N·s and 215.4 ± 28.5 N·s for Fimpulse, p ≤ 0.05). Finally, at the block clearing, elite sprinters showed a greater XHand_rear and XHand_front than well-trained sprinters (respectively, 0.07± 0.12 m and −0.27 ± 0.36 m for XHand_rear; 1.00 ± 0.14 m and 0.52 ± 0.27 m for XHand_front; p ≤ 0.05). The muscular strength and arm coordination appear to characterize the efficiency of the sprint start. To improve speed capacities of their athletes, coaches must include in their habitual training sessions of resistance training.

A simple method for measuring power, force, velocity properties, and mechanical effectiveness in sprint running

This study aimed to validate a simple field method for determining force– and power–velocity relationships and mechanical effectiveness of force application during sprint running. The proposed method, based on an inverse dynamic approach applied to the body center of mass, estimates the step‐averaged ground reaction forces in runners sagittal plane of motion during overground sprint acceleration from only anthropometric and spatiotemporal data. Force– and power–velocity relationships, the associated variables, and mechanical effectiveness were determined (a) on nine sprinters using both the proposed method and force plate measurements and (b) on six other sprinters using the proposed method during several consecutive trials to assess the inter‐trial reliability. The low bias (<5%) and narrow limits of agreement between both methods for maximal horizontal force (638 ± 84 N), velocity (10.5 ± 0.74 m/s), and power output (1680 ± 280 W); for the slope of the force–velocity relationships; and for the mechanical effectiveness of force application showed high concurrent validity of the proposed method. The low standard errors of measurements between trials (<5%) highlighted the high reliability of the method. These findings support the validity of the proposed simple method, convenient for field use, to determine power, force, velocity properties, and mechanical effectiveness in sprint running.

Segment-interaction in sprint start: Analysis of 3D angular velocity and kinetic energy in elite sprinters

The aim of the present study was to measure during a sprint start the joint angular velocity and the kinetic energy of the different segments in elite sprinters. This was performed using a 3D kinematic analysis of the whole body. Eight elite sprinters (10.30+/-0.14s 100 m time), equipped with 63 passive reflective markers, realised four maximal 10 m sprints start on an indoor track. An opto-electronic Motion Analysis system consisting of 12 digital cameras (250 Hz) was used to collect the 3D marker trajectories. During the pushing phase on the blocks, the 3D angular velocity vector and its norm were calculated for each joint. The kinetic energy of 16 segments of the lower and upper limbs and of the total body was calculated. The 3D kinematic analysis of the whole body demonstrated that joints such as shoulders, thoracic or hips did not reach their maximal angular velocity with a movement of flexion-extension, but with a combination of flexion-extension, abduction-adduction and internal-external rotation. The maximal kinetic energy of the total body was reached before clearing block (respectively, 537+/-59.3 J vs. 514.9+/-66.0 J; p< or =0.01). These results suggested that a better synchronization between the upper and lower limbs could increase the efficiency of pushing phase on the blocks. Besides, to understand low interindividual variances in the sprint start performance in elite athletes, a 3D complete body kinematic analysis shall be used.

Effect of free versus constant pace on performance and oxygen kinetics in running.

PURPOSE This study tested the hypothesis that free versus constant pace enhanced the performance (i.e., distance run) in suprathreshold runs between 90 and 105% of the velocity associated with the maximal oxygen consumption determined in an incremental test (v.VO(2max)). Moreover, we hypothesized that variable pace could decrease the slow phase of oxygen kinetics by small spontaneous recoveries during the same distance run at an average velocity. METHOD Eleven long-distance runners performed nine track runs performed until exhaustion. Following an incremental test to determine v.VO(2max), the runners performed, in a random order, four constant-velocity runs at 90, 95, 100, and 105% of v.VO(2max) to determine the time to exhaustion (tlim90, tlim95, tlim100, and tlim105) and the distance limit at 90, 95, 100 and 105% of v.VO(2max) (dlim90, dlim95, dlim100, and dlim105). Finally, they performed the distance limit determined in the constant velocity runs but at variable velocity according to their spontaneous choice. RESULTS The coefficient of variation of velocity (in percent of the average velocity) was small and not significantly different between the four free pace dlim (4.2 +/- 1.3%, 4.8 +/- 2.4%, 3.6 +/- 1.1%, and 4.6 +/- 1.9% for dlim90, dlim95, dlim100, and dlim105, respectively; P = 0.40). Performances were not improved by a variable pace excepted for the dlim at 105% v.VO(2max) (4.96 +/- 0.6 m.s-1 vs 4.86 +/- 0.5 m.s-1, P = 0.04). Oxygen kinetics and the volume of oxygen consumed were not modified by this (low) variation in velocity. CONCLUSION These results indicate that for long-distance runners, variable pace modifies neither performance nor the oxygen kinetics in all-out suprathreshold runs.

Spring-mass behavior during exhaustive run at constant velocity in elite triathletes.

PURPOSE The aims of this study were i) to evaluate changes in leg-spring behavior during an exhaustive run in elite triathletes and ii) to determine whether these modifications were related to an increase in the energy cost of running (Cr). METHODS Nine elite triathletes ran to exhaustion on an indoor track at a constant velocity corresponding to 95% of the velocity associated with the maximal oxygen uptake (mean ± SD = 5.1 ± 0.3 m·s(-1), time to exhaustion = 10.7 ± 2.6 min). Vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces were measured every lap (200 m) by a 5-m-long force platform system. Cr was measured from pulmonary gas exchange using a breath-by-breath portable gas analyzer. RESULTS Leg stiffness (-13.1%, P < 0.05) and peak vertical (-9.2%, P < 0.05) and propulsive (-7.5%, P < 0.001) forces decreased significantly with fatigue, whereas vertical stiffness did not change significantly. Leg and vertical stiffness changes were positively related with modifications of aerial time (R(2) = 0.66, P < 0.01 and R(2) = 0.72, P < 0.01, respectively) and negatively with contact time (R(2) = 0.71, P < 0.01 and R(2) = 0.74, P < 0.01, respectively). Alterations of vertical forces were related with the decrease of the angle of velocity vector at toe off (R(2) = 0.73, P < 0.01). When considering mean values of oxygen uptake, no change was observed from 33% to 100% of the time to exhaustion. However, between one-third and two-thirds of the fatiguing run, negative correlations were observed between oxygen consumption and leg stiffness (R(2) = 0.83, P < 0.001) or vertical stiffness (R(2) = 0.50, P < 0.03). CONCLUSIONS During a constant run to exhaustion, the fatigue induces a stiffness adaptation that modifies the stride mechanical parameters and especially decreases the maximal vertical force. This response to fatigue involves greater energy consumption.

Changes in Spring-mass Model Parameters and Energy Cost During Track Running to Exhaustion

The purpose of this study was to determine whether exhaustion modifies the stiffness characteristics, as defined in the spring-mass model, during track running. We also investigated whether stiffer runners are also the most economical. Nine well-trained runners performed an exhaustive exercise over 2000 meters on an indoor track. This exhaustive exercise was preceded by a warm-up and was followed by an active recovery. Throughout all the exercises, the energy cost of running (Cr) was measured. Vertical and leg stiffness was measured with a force plate (Kvert and Kleg, respectively) integrated into the track. The results show that Cr increases significantly after the 2000-meter run (0.192 ± 0.006 to 0.217 ± 0.013 mL·kg−1·m−1). However, Kvert and Kleg remained constant (32.52 ± 6.42 to 32.59 ± 5.48 and 11.12 ± 2.76 to 11.14 ± 2.48 kN·m−1, respectively). An inverse correlation was observed between Cr and Kleg, but only during the 2000-meter exercise (r = −0.67; P ≤ 0.05). During the warm-up or the recovery, Cr and Kleg, were not correlated (r = 0.354; P = 0.82 and r = 0.21; P = 0.59, respectively). On track, exhaustion induced by a 2000-meter run has no effect on Kleg or Kvert. The inverse correlation was only observed between Cr and Kleg during the 2000-meter run and not before or after the exercise, suggesting that the stiffness of the runner may be not associated with the Cr.

Rotation sequence is an important factor in shoulder kinematics. Application to the elite players’ flat serves

The aim of this study was to test three different rotation sequences (YXY, ZXY, and XZY) on the shoulder kinematics (rotations of the humerus relative to the thorax) during an original movement such as the tennis flat serve (FS). Nine elite male and female players performed a minimum of five flat serves. An optoelectronic motion analysis system was used to record the movements. Segment kinematics during each FS was reconstructed from the spatial trajectories of the markers according to ISB recommendations. For each rotation sequence, three angles were reported for the shoulder joint, each corresponding to a rotation component around a defined axis. The occurrence of gimbal lock (GL) and angle amplitude coherences were examined. From these three rotation sequences tested, it appears that the XZY sequence was the only decomposition not to suffer from GL. Moreover, the rotation sequence XZY was found to be coherent for all rotation components. Thus, these results show that the best rotation sequence, from both GL and amplitude coherence points of view, is XZY to describe the shoulder kinematics during the tennis serve.