Jim Nixon

The development and assessment of behavioural markers to support counter-IED training

This article describes the method used to develop and test a checklist of behavioural markers designed to support UK military forces during Counter-Improvised Explosive Device (C-IED) training. IEDs represent a significant threat to UK and allied forces. Effective C-IED procedures and techniques are central to reducing risk to life in this safety critical role. Behavioural markers have been developed to characterise and assess non-technical skills which have been shown to be important in maintaining high performance in other safety critical domains. The aims of this study were two-fold. Firstly to develop a method which could be used to capture and assess operationally relevant behavioural markers for use in C-IED training relating primarily to non-technical skills. Secondly, to test the user acceptance of the behavioural marker checklist during military training activities. Through engagement with military subject matter experts, operationally relevant and observable behaviours seen in C-IED training have been identified and their links to stronger and weaker performance have been established. Using a card-sort technique, the content validity of each of the markers was assessed in addition to their detectability in an operational context. Following this assessment, a selection of the most operationally relevant and detectable behaviours were assimilated into a checklist and this checklist was tested in C-IED training activities. The results of the study show that the method used was effective in generating and assessing the behavioural markers using military subject matter experts. The study also broadly supports the utility and user-acceptance of the use of behavioural markers during training activities. The checklist developed using this methodology will provide those responsible for delivering instruction in C-IED techniques and procedures with a straightforward process for identifying good and poor performance with respect to non-technical skills. In addition it will provide a basis for the provision of focussed feedback to trainees during debrief.

Understanding the human performance envelope using electrophysiological measures from wearable technology

In this article, we capture electrophysiological measures from a new wearable technology to understand the human performance envelope. Using the NASA Multi-Attribute Task Batteryxa0(MATB II), participants completed tasks associated with flight control which included communication, tracking and system and resource monitoring. Electrophysiological measures relating to cardiac activity and respiration were taken using the new wearable technology. Our results show significant differences in both heart rate and respiration rate in response to different taskloads and that higher taskloads were associated with higher mental workload. Frequency measures of heart rate variability discriminated different task types but not taskloads. This finding may be related to differences in task complexity being more important than the number events which we have used to manipulate taskload. We suggest that this new generation of wearable sensors could be used to inform operator locus in a human performance envelope, indicating when assistance by the aircraft or another crew member may be necessary to maintain safe and efficient performance.

Framing the Human Dimension in Cybersecurity

The advent of technologies that can seamlessly operate in different environments with differing levels of security present new challenges to the cybersecurity specialist seeking to ensure the safety of data, process or output of a complex system. This paper reviews the human dimension of cybersecurity. The Human Factors Integration (HFI) framework is employed as a structure with which to consider the many ways in which the human can differentially affect the security of a system both positively and negatively. We conclude that when the human factors element is analysed when specifying and designing secure and safe systems, it is far more likely that the human can assist and increase the overall level of security. As in other high technology sectors such as aviation or petrochemical, if not considered, the human can often ‘bulldoze’ through the most carefully considered and designed security or safety barriers

Less is more? Navigating with Different Types of Information on a Small-Screen Device

An experiment was conducted to study differences in workload and performance of participants when navigating a route inside a building. Participants used a personal digital assistant (PDA) which presented three different types of spatial information. The spatial information varied in complexity. Spatial information was presented as a sequence of maps which were advanced by the user according to location. This method of presentation captures the essence of a location-based service; the spatial information presented is only relevant at that location. Results show significantly shorter route completion times and lower mental workload for participants using the simplified information when compared to the more complex information. Implications for the design of location-based navigation support on small-screen devices are discussed.

Presenting Spatial Information on a Mobile Device: Differences in Workload and Performance

An experiment was conducted to study differences in workload and performance of participants when navigating a route. Participants used a mobile device to navigate a route in a building. Different types of representation were used: a paper floor plan and three representations presented on a personal digital assistant (PDA). In the PDA based conditions, an overview of the floor plan was presented in a picture viewer. Since the plan was much larger than the PDA screen, participants moved different parts of the plan into view using a stylus. Floor plans were also presented as a sequence of plan fragments on the PDA which were advanced by the user according to location. Results show significantly shorter route completion times for participants using the paper plan compared with the PDA support. Significant differences in workload, effort and mental demand were also found between the types of representation. The paper plan condition elicited the lowest levels of workload and the shortest route completion times. Implications for the design of location-based navigation support are discussed.

Measuring mental workload using physiological measures: A systematic review

Technological advances have led to physiological measurement being increasingly used to measure and predict operator states. Mental workload (MWL) in particular has been characterised using a variety of physiological sensor data. This systematic review contributes a synthesis of the literature summarising key findings to assist practitioners to select measures for use in evaluation of MWL. We also describe limitations of the methods to assist selection when being deployed in applied or laboratory settings. We detail fifty-eight peer reviewed journal articles which present original data using physiological measures to include electrocardiographic, respiratory, dermal, blood pressure and ocular. Electroencephalographic measures have been included if they are presented with another measure to constrain scope. The literature reviewed covers a range of applied and experimental studies across various domains, safety-critical applications being highly represented in the sample of applied literature reviewed. We present a summary of the six measures and provide an evidence base which includes how to deploy each measure, and characteristics that can affect or preclude the use of a measure in research. Measures can be used to discriminate differences in MWL caused by task type, task load, and in some cases task difficulty. Varying ranges of sensitivity to sudden or gradual changes in taskload are also evident across the six measures. We conclude that there is no single measure that clearly discriminates mental workload but there is a growing empirical basis with which to inform both science and practice.

Helicopter pilots' views of air traffic controller responsibilities: a mismatch

Abstract Controllers and pilots must work together to ensure safe and efficient helicopter flight within the London control zone. Subjective ratings of pilot perception of controller responsibility for five key flight tasks were obtained from thirty helicopter pilots. Three types of airspace were investigated. Results indicate that there is variation in pilot understanding of controller responsibility compared to the formal regulations that define controller responsibility. Significant differences in the perception of controller responsibility were found for the task of aircraft separation in class D airspace and along helicopter routes. Analysis of the patterns of response suggests that task type rather than the airspace type may be the key factor. Results are framed using the concept of a shared mental model. This research demonstrates that pilots flying in complex London airspace have an expectation of controller responsibility for certain flight tasks, in certain airspace types that is not supported by aviation regulation. Practitioner Summary: The responsibility for tasks during flight varies according to the flight rules used and airspace type. Helicopter pilots may attribute responsibility to controllers for tasks when controllers have no responsibility as defined by regulation. This variation between pilot perceptions of controller responsibility could affect safety within the London control zone.

Transport in the 21st Century: The application of human factors to future user needs.

These issues reflected leading concerns within the wider transport domain that are going to become increasingly important throughout the 21st Century across traditional domains of land, sea and air. However, there are other factors that need to be considered from social perspectives (e.g. changing demographics of transport users) and new initiatives focused on more responsible transport use. New methods of working and new technologies may be required or could be exploited to maximize the capacity of existing airspace and shipping lanes. In an aging society, new demands for accessibility are required across the entire range of transport modes. Green initiatives are refocusing attention on traditional modes of transport such as trams, pedestrian and cycling priorities that must compete with established road-users. Across all modes of transport there are ever increasing demands in terms of capacity, comfort and value. To address these a fine balance needs to be struck between the requirements of operators and their investors and, often, the competing requirements of end users and their travel experience. Many different technologies are being used to deliver value for the operator and to augment the user experience. Coupled with societal changes and environmental issues driving more intelligent energy usage and lower carbon emissions, society is demanding more convenience, comfort and speed across different travel networks. The discipline of Human Factors can provide a unique perspective in this arena. Underpinning all these issues is a fundamental requirement to understand 21st Century transport systems and gain meaningful insights from user-centred perspectives. Human Factors can deliver valuable contributions to the debate surrounding transport in the 21st Century and by shaping successful integrated transport solutions for the 21st Century. With these issues in mind, and the many challenges they present, the Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors (CIEHF) initiated a Transport Ergonomics Campaign during 2014 to raise the profile of Human Factors and Ergonomics (HF/E) in wider transport debates. This campaign presented a timely opportunity for drawing together the current knowledge in applied research focused on future transport systems into a single special issue of Applied Ergonomics. This special issue presents a collection of papers that explore a range of topics across the spectrum of transport in the 21st Century. The guest editors invited contributions from around the world representing and reviewing research that explores the theory and application of Human Factors knowledge within this domain. The result is a collection of papers from contributors who are each respected as International leaders in their fields of research. Whilst there was a natural temptation to present the papers based on the modes of transport they represent (e.g. road, rail, aviation) the guest editors felt the focus of the special issue should be on the wider reaching factors that transcend traditional transport mode approaches. As a result the special issue draws the papers together across areas of: transport methodologies; design and modelling; logistics; user experience and human performance; and autonomous vehicles. These areas represent key challenges for transport in the 21st Century and provide the reader with an opportunity to learn lessons and integrate knowledge across different modes. The first two papers present new perspectives on transport methodologies. Walker and Strathie consider the development of a new HF/E paradigm for handling big data in the rail domain that has the potential to address important strategic risks faced by operators and authorities around the world. This paper presents a number of proof of concept demonstrations to show that longstanding ergonomics methods can be driven from big data, and succeed in providing insight into human performance in a novel way. Over 300 ergonomics methods were reviewed and nine candidate Human Factors Leading Indicators were identified that map on to all of the psychological precursors of the identified risks. In the following paper Salmon et al., consider the increasing intensity of operational demands on transport systems. With a particular focus on rail incidents, failures to prevent collisions may be, in part, due to a lack of systems thinking during design, crash analysis, and countermeasure development. This paper presents a systems analysis of current active rail level crossing systems in Australia to identify design requirements to improve safety in future rail level crossing

Automated Schematic Mapping for MobileGIS: Technical developments and Human Factors requirements

This paper looks at how human factors requirements can be considered in the context of graphic conflict reduction for mobile GIS applications. Currently this reduction is achieved by using schematic mapping techniques. With the advent of high-end miniature technology as well as digital geographic data products like OSMasterMap and OSCAR, it is essential to devise proper methodologies for map generalization specifically tailored for MobileGIS applications. This paper is concerned with the problem of producing schematic maps suitable for rendering on mobile display devices (e.g. PDAs). The application of schematic mapping can be thought of as a data reduction technique for large scale datasets to make it suitable for rendering in mobile applications. These techniques have been based on computation and have not incorporated any understanding of how the simplification affects the ease of use of the maps. It is therefore desirable to devise suitable generalization techniques incorporating human factors considerations for generating schematic maps from large scale datasets for display on small display devices to be used for MobileGIS applications

Schematic maps in MobileGIS environments: an automated simulated annealing based case study

BackgroundMobileGIS refers to the use of geographic data in the field on mobile devices like networked personal digital assistant (PDA). The main components for MobileGIS are global positioning system (GPS), mobile device i.e. mobile phone, and communication network with GIS acting as the backbone. Map generalization is the process by which small scale maps are to be derived from large scale maps. This requires the appropriate use of map generalization operations to be performed subsequent to scale reduction to reduce the graphic conflict.MethodThis paper looks at how human factors requirements can be considered in the context of graphic conflict reduction for MobileGIS applications. Currently, this reduction is achieved by using schematic mapping techniques. The application of schematic mapping can be thought of as a data reduction technique for large scale datasets to make it suitable for rendering in mobile applications. This work makes use of simulated annealing (SA) based technique. At the start of the optimization process SA is presented with an initial approximate solution (or state). In the case of the schematic map problem, this will be the initial network (line features with travel time, each made up of constituent vertices). The initial state is then evaluated using a cost function C; this function assigns to the input state a score that reflects how well it measures up against a set of given constraints (topological, angle, minimum edge length, clearance). If the initial cost is greater than some user defined threshold (i.e. the constraints are not met adequately) then the algorithm steps into its optimization phase. This part of the process is iterative. At each iteration, the current state (i.e. the current network) is modified to make a new, alternative, approximate solution. The current and new states are said to be neighbours. The neighbours of any given state are generated usually in an application-specific way. The iterative process continues until stopping criteria are met (e.g. a suitably good solution is found or a certain amount of time has passed).ResultsPrototype software for producing schematic maps tailored for MobileGIS has been developed. The software makes use of the simulated annealing optimization technique. The software is currently implemented as a VBA script within ArcGIS. This technique has been used previously to control operations of displacement, deletion, reduction and enlargement of multiple map objects to help resolve spatial conflict arising due to scale reduction. These maps are subsequently displayed within the ArcPad application on a HP iPAQ PDA and tests have been carried out using different datasets. The results of applying simulated annealing based approach for automated schematic map generation is promising and further work will be done in enhancing the software with more functionality.ConclusionsDevelopment of automated schematic map generation techniques and cartographic specification for large scale digital geographic datasets suitable for MobileGIS applications was done and various tests carried out. Spatial conflict between feature classes at the specified scale ranges are to be dealt with by applying simulated annealing metaheuristic optimization technique.