John Christian Larsen

Environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons affect androgen receptor activation in vitro.

Nine structurally different polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were tested for their ability to either agonize or antagonize the human androgen receptor (hAR) in a sensitive reporter gene assay based on CHO cells transiently cotransfected with a hAR vector and an MMTV-LUC vector. Benz[a]anthracene (B[a]A), benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), fluoranthene, chrysene and 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) were acting as antiandrogens in vitro, resulting in IC(50) values of 3.2, 3.9, 4.6, 10.3 and 10.4 microM, respectively. Only at the highest concentration tested (10 microM), a slight inhibitory effect by pyrene, phenanthrene, and anthracene was observed. In contrast, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DB[a,h]A) gave rise to an agonistic effect, which was added upon the effect of the androgen receptor agonist R1881 (0.1 nM). The antiandrogenic responses by PAHs (10 microM) were found to be fully reversible, determined in the presence of increasing concentrations of R1881. No cytotoxic effects of the tested compounds were observed as determined either by metabolic reduction using AlamarBlue (up to 20 microM) or determined in cells transfected with a constitutively active hAR (up to 10 microM). The well-known ability of certain PAHs to activate the Ah receptor was assessed in H4IIE liver cancer cells, stably transfected with a luciferase reporter gene system. The positive control 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) caused a 13-14-fold induction of luciferase activity reaching maximum activity at 0.1 nM. DB[a,h]A, B[a]P, Chrysene, B[a]A and DMBA gave rise to a 4.5-fold induction of luciferase activity at 0.03, 0.4, 0.89, 3.06, and 9.27 microM, respectively, whereas fluoranthene, pyrene, phenanthrene and anthracene were without effect. In conclusion, no clear correlation between the antiandrogenic effects and the Ah receptor activation in vitro was seen. However, the Ah receptor agonists containing four or five aromatic rings (i.e. B [a] A, B [a] P, chrysene, DMBA) appeared to be the most potent antiandrogens (with the exception of DB [a, h] A), whereas those not able to activate the Ah receptor containing three or four aromatic rings (i.e. pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene) displayed either very weak or no antiandrogenic effect at concentrations up to 10 microM (with the exception of fluoranthene which blocked the hAR at lower concentrations, but did not activate the Ah receptor).

Screening of selected pesticides for oestrogen receptor activation in vitro.

Twenty pesticides were tested for their ability to activate the oestrogen receptor in vitro using an MCF7 cell proliferation assay and a Yeast Oestrogen Screen. The fungicides fenarimol, triadimefon, and triadimenol were identified as weak oestrogen receptor agonists, which at 10 microM induces a 2.0, 2.4, and 1.9-fold increase in proliferation of human MCF7 breast cancer cells (E3 clone). The relative proliferation efficiency (RPE) was 43-69%, indicating partial agonism at the oestrogen receptor. Several pesticides did not have any effect on the proliferation response after 6 days of exposure, including: chlorpyrifos, diuron, iprodion, linuron, pentachlorphenol, prochloraz, propioconazol, propyzamine, quintozen, tetrachorvinphos and tetradifon. Some pesticides resulted in a negligible proliferation response, which was not statistically significant under the present experimental conditions. These were: bromopropylate, chlorfenvinphos, chlorobenzilate, dicofol, heptachlor, and imazalil. Fenarimol and dicofol also gave rise to a positive oestrogenic response in yeast cells transfected with the oestrogen receptor alpha, whereas the remaining compounds resulted in a negative response due either to biological inactivity or cytotoxocity to the yeast cells. The EC50 for fenarimol was estimated to be 13 microM in the yeast cells, compared with an EC50 of 3 microM in the MCF7 cells, indicating higher sensitivity of the latter assay. No in vivo data for fenarimol, triadimefon or triadimenol have previously been published that support oestrogenic activity in the intact animal. Thus, from the present results we suggest that oestrogen receptor activation may not be an important mode of action for these compounds. The need to include at least two bioassays in a screening procedure and for combining in vitro and in vivo data is emphasized.

Ochratoxin A: Previous risk assessments and issues arising

Ochratoxin A (OTA) causes nephropathy in all species tested with large sex and species differences in potency, pigs being most sensitive. It has been linked to Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) in humans. Embryotoxicity, teratogenicity, and immunotoxicity occur only at doses higher than those causing nephrotoxicity. OTA has long serum half-lives in various species including humans. OTA produced renal tumours in mice and rats. The male rat was most sensitive, renal carcinomas occurring after 70 µg/kg bw per day but not 21 µg/kg bw per day. OTA was not mutagenic in most studies in bacteria and mammalian cells, but produced DNA damage and chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells in vitro, and in mice in vivo. DNA adducts found in the kidneys of mice and rats dosed with OTA, did not contain fragments of OTA. OTA in food has been evaluated by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), and by the EC Scientific Committee on Food (SCF). JECFA established a provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 100 ng/kg bw based on the LOEL for renal effects in pigs. Conversely, SCF recommended reducing exposure to OTA as much as possible, e.g. below 5 ng/kg bw per day. Both committees recommended further studies to clarify the mechanism by which OTA induces nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity.

Applicability of the CALUX bioassay for screening of dioxin levels in human milk samples

The CALUX (chemically activated luciferase expression) bioassay based on rat hepatoma (H4IIE) cells is a sensitive assay for the detection of Ah receptor agonists like 2,3,7,8-substituted chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans and related PCBs. In this paper, the assay was optimized and applied for monitoring levels of dioxins in human milk samples. Combination effects of dioxin-like compounds were evaluated by testing potential mechanisms of interaction between seven of the major dioxin-like compounds in human milk using the isobole method. Results showed that the compounds acted additively, indicating that the usual assumption of additivity in the risk assessment process is valid. In general the relative potencies (REPs) of the single agents were in accordance with their TEFs assigned by the World Health Organisation, except for the mono- ortho -substituted PCB118 that had a 40-fold lower REP in CALUX. The total dioxin-like activity was determined in 16 Danish human milk samples and was in the range 20.5–55.8 pg TEQ g−1 fat. These values were compared with TEQs obtained from GC/MS analysis (range 14.8–43.6 pg TEQ-g−1 fat) that overall were a little lower than CALUX TEQs. The results obtained with the bioassay when testing milk extracts fractionated into dioxins/furans, non- ortho PCB and mono/di- ortho PCB fractions indicated that the correlation between the bioassay and the chemical analyses depends primarily on the Ah receptor activity observed in the mono/di- ortho PCB fraction.

In Vitro and In Vivo Estrogenic Activity of Dietary Flavonoids: Importance of Bioavailability and Metabolism

NATURALLY OCCURRING COMPOUNDS that exhibit estrogenic activity are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Among these compounds are the isoflavonoids; they are closely related to the flavonoids, which occur ubiquitously in food plants. Unlike the flavonoids, the isoflavonoids have a limited taxinomie distribution and are largely confined to the Leguminosa family. Isoflavonoids are particularly rich in certain legumes, such as soya, lentils, and chick peas, which are components of traditional Asian and African diets. The isoflavonoids are of great interest to human health because they occur at substantial concentrations in human urine (Adlercreutz et al., 1982,1995; Bannwart et al., 1984). The high concentration of isoflavonoids found in the urine of Asian women, who are known to exhibit a low incidence of breast cancer, suggests that isoflavonoids might play a protective role in the pathogenesis of estrogen-dependent carcinoma. The central role estrogens play in sexual differentiation in mammals, however, may be taken to suggest that isoflavonoids might exert