Juha Riikonen

Investigation of second- and third-harmonic generation in few-layer gallium selenide by multiphoton microscopy

Gallium selenide (GaSe) is a layered semiconductor and a well-known nonlinear optical crystal. The discovery of graphene has created a new vast research field focusing on two-dimensional materials. We report on the nonlinear optical properties of few-layer GaSe using multiphoton microscopy. Both second- and third-harmonic generation from few-layer GaSe flakes were observed. Unexpectedly, even the peak at the wavelength of 390 nm, corresponding to the fourth-harmonic generation or the sum frequency generation from third-harmonic generation and pump light, was detected during the spectral measurements in thin GaSe flakes.

Rapid large-area multiphoton microscopy for characterization of graphene

Single- and few-layer graphene was studied with simultaneous third-harmonic and multiphoton-absorption-excited fluorescence microscopy using a compact 1.55 μm mode-locked fiber laser source. Strong third-harmonic generation (THG) and multiphoton-absorption-excited fluorescence (MAEF) signals were observed with high contrast over the signal from the substrate. High contrast was also achieved between single- and bilayer graphene. The measurement is straightforward and very fast compared to typical Raman mapping, which is the conventional method for characterization of graphene. Multiphoton microscopy is also proved to be an extremely efficient method for detecting certain structural features in few-layer graphene. The accuracy and speed of multiphoton microscopy make it a very promising characterization technique for fundamental research as well as large-scale fabrication of graphene. To our knowledge, this is the first time simultaneous THG and MAEF microscopy has been utilized in the characterization of graphene. This is also the first THG microscopy study on graphene using the excitation wavelength of 1.55 μm, which is significant in telecommunications and signal processing.

Tunable Graphene–GaSe Dual Heterojunction Device

A field-effect device based on dual graphene-GaSe heterojunctions is demonstrated. Monolayer graphene is used as electrodes on a GaSe channel to form two opposing Schottky diodes controllable by local top gates. The device exhibits strong rectification with tunable threshold voltage. Detailed theoretical modeling is used to explain the device operation and to distinguish the differences compared to a single diode.

Low Temperature Growth GaAs on Ge

In this work, low temperature growth of GaAs epitaxial layers on Ge substrates by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy has been studied. The experiments show that a growth temperature of 530°C and a V/III ratio of 3.5 result in smooth GaAs surfaces. Atomic force micrographs do not show any anti-phase boundaries on the surface of GaAs grown on a misoriented substrate. X-ray diffraction curves show that the layer tilt is reduced as the growth temperature is lowered. Synchrotron X-ray topography reveals very low threading dislocation densities of 300 cm-2 for the GaAs epitaxial layers. Additionally, no misfit dislocations are observed. If a single layer is deposited at low temperature, secondary ion mass spectrometry shows a considerably reduced arsenic diffusion into Ge. When an additional layer is deposited at higher temperature on top of the initial low temperature layer, a substantial increase for the deep concentration-dependent arsenic diffusion is found.

Tuning Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance in Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Probes

A reproducible route for tuning localized surface plasmon resonance in scattering type near-field optical microscopy probes is presented. The method is based on the production of a focused-ion-beam milled single groove near the apex of electrochemically etched gold tips. Electron energy-loss spectroscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy are employed to obtain highly spatially and spectroscopically resolved maps of the milled probes, revealing localized surface plasmon resonance at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. By changing the distance L between the groove and the probe apex, the localized surface plasmon resonance energy can be fine-tuned at a desired absorption channel. Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy is applied as a test platform, and the results prove the reliability of the method to produce efficient scattering type near-field optical microscopy probes.

Nonlinear behavior of three terminal graphene junctions at room temperature

We demonstrate nonlinear behavior in three-terminal T-branch graphene devices at room temperature. A rectified nonlinear output at the center branch is observed when the device is biased by a push-pull configuration. Nonlinearity is assumed to arise from a difference in charge transfer through the metal–graphene contact barrier between two contacts. The sign of the rectification can be altered by changing the carrier type using the back-gate voltage.

Comparison of epitaxial thin layer GaN and InP passivations on InGaAs∕GaAs near-surface quantum wells

The optical properties of the in situ epitaxial GaN and InP passivated InGaAs∕GaAs near-surface quantum wells, which were fabricated by metal organic vapor phase epitaxy, are investigated. Low-temperature photoluminescence (PL), time-resolved photoluminescence, and photoreflectance are used to study the passivation effect. Both GaN and InP passivations are observed to significantly enhance the PL intensity and carrier lifetime and to reduce the surface electrical fields. Comparison of the methods shows that the epitaxial InP passivation is more effective. However, epitaxial GaN and nitridation methods are comparable with InP passivation.

Evaluation of mechanical stresses in silicon substrates due to lead-tin solder bumps via synchrotron X-ray topography and finite element modeling

Solder-based flip-chip packaging has prompted interest in integrated circuit (IC) packaging applications due to its many advantages in terms of cost, package size, electrical performance, input/output density, etc. The ball grid array (BGA) is one of the most common flip-chip packaging techniques used for microprocessor applications. However, mechanical stresses induced by the flip-chip process can impact adversely on the reliability of products. Synchrotron X-ray topography (SXRT), a non-destructive technique, has been employed to investigate the spatial extent of strain fields imposed on the underlying silicon substrate for Intel® Pentium® III microprocessors due to the lead-tin solder bump process for BGA packaging. Large area and section back-reflection SXRT images were taken before and after a simulation of the reflow process at 350 °C in atmosphere. The presence of induced strain fields in the Si substrate due to the overlying bump structures has been observed via the extinction contrast effect in these X-ray topographs. In addition, orientational contrast effects have also been found after the reflow process due to the severe stresses in the underlying silicon beneath the lead bumps. The estimated magnitudes of stress, |σ|, imposed on the underlying silicon were calculated to be of the order of 100 MPa. The spatial strains in the underlying silicon were relieved dramatically after the lead bumps were removed from the wafer, which confirms that the bumps are indeed a major source of strain in the underlying Si. Finite element modeling (FEM) has also been performed in two-dimensional (2-D) plane strain mode. The magnitudes and spatial distribution of the stresses after the reflow process are in good agreement with the SXRT results.

Synchrotron X-ray topography of undoped VCz GaAs crystals

For the first time vapour pressure controlled Czochralski (VCz) monocrystals of semi-insulating (SI) GaAs, grown at IKZ Berlin, have been investigated by synchrotron X-ray topography. The X-ray topographs of a typical VCz sample, taken from the cylindrical part, show dislocation images resembling those of SI vertical gradient freeze-grown GaAs crystals. From the disappearance of the dislocation image in selected topographs it is concluded that the Burgers vector for most dislocations is parallel to . The main part proves to be of 60° type. The cellular structure, typical for liquid encapsulated Czochralski material, is not seen in the VCz samples. Large volumes up to 0.5 x 0.5 × 0.5 mm 3 are dislocation-free. The results are compared with etch pit density (EPD) measurements from the same crystals. The average EPD is (1-2) x 10 4 cm -2 . The minimum value along is 2 × 10 3 cm 2 .

High-k GaAs metal insulator semiconductor capacitors passivated by ex-situ plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposited AlN for Fermi-level unpinning

This paper examines the utilization of plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition grown AlN in the fabrication of a high-k insulator layer on GaAs. It is shown that high-k GaAs MIS capacitors with an unpinned Fermi level can be fabricated utilizing a thin ex-situ deposited AlN passivation layer. The illumination and temperature induced changes in the inversion side capacitance, and the maximum band bending of 1.2 eV indicates that the MIS capacitor reaches inversion. Removal of surface oxide is not required in contrast to many common ex-situ approaches.