Kathryn M. Deck

Iron-responsive degradation of iron-regulatory protein 1 does not require the Fe-S cluster.

The generally accepted role of iron‐regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) in orchestrating the fate of iron‐regulated mRNAs depends on the interconversion of its cytosolic aconitase and RNA‐binding forms through assembly/disassembly of its Fe–S cluster, without altering protein abundance. Here, we show that IRP1 protein abundance can be iron‐regulated. Modulation of IRP1 abundance by iron did not require assembly of the Fe–S cluster, since a mutant with all cluster‐ligating cysteines mutated to serine underwent iron‐induced protein degradation. Phosphorylation of IRP1 at S138 favored the RNA‐binding form and promoted iron‐dependent degradation. However, phosphorylation at S138 was not required for degradation. Further, degradation of an S138 phosphomimetic mutant was not blocked by mutation of cluster‐ligating cysteines. These findings were confirmed in mouse models with genetic defects in cytosolic Fe–S cluster assembly/disassembly. IRP1 RNA‐binding activity was primarily regulated by IRP1 degradation in these animals. Our results reveal a mechanism for regulating IRP1 action relevant to the control of iron homeostasis during cell proliferation, inflammation, and in response to diseases altering cytosolic Fe–S cluster assembly or disassembly.

Increased IRP1 and IRP2 RNA binding activity accompanies a reduction of the labile iron pool in HFE-expressing cells*

Iron regulatory proteins (IRPs), the cytosolic proteins involved in the maintenance of cellular iron homeostasis, bind to stem loop structures found in the mRNA of key proteins involved iron uptake, storage, and metabolism and regulate the expression of these proteins in response to changes in cellular iron needs. We have shown previously that HFE‐expressing fWTHFE/tTA HeLa cells have slightly increased transferrin receptor levels and dramatically reduced ferritin levels when compared to the same clonal cell line without HFE (Gross et al., 1998 , J Biol Chem 273:22068‐22074). While HFE does not alter transferrin receptor trafficking or non‐transferrin mediated iron uptake, it does specifically reduce 55Fe uptake from transferrin (Roy et al., 1999 , J Biol Chem 274:9022–9028). In this report, we show that IRP RNA binding activity is increased by up to 5‐fold in HFE‐expressing cells through the activation of both IRP isoforms. Calcein measurements show a 45% decrease in the intracellular labile iron pool in HFE‐expressing cells, which is in keeping with the IRP activation. These results all point to the direct effect of the interaction of HFE with transferrin receptor in lowering the intracellular labile iron pool and establishing a new set point for iron regulation within the cell. J. Cell. Physiol. 190: 218–226, 2002.

Evidence that phosphorylation of iron regulatory protein 1 at Serine 138 destabilizes the [4Fe-4S] cluster in cytosolic aconitase by enhancing 4Fe-3Fe cycling.

Iron-sulfur cluster-dependent interconversion of iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) between its RNA binding and cytosolic aconitase (c-acon) forms controls vertebrate iron homeostasis. Cluster removal from c-acon is thought to include oxidative demetallation as a required step, but little else is understood about the process of conversion to IRP1. In comparison with c-aconWT, Ser138 phosphomimetic mutants of c-acon contain an unstable [4Fe-4S] cluster and were used as tools to further define the pathway(s) of iron-sulfur cluster disassembly. Under anaerobic conditions cluster insertion into purified IRP1S138E and cluster loss on treatment with NO regulated aconitase and RNA binding activity over a similar range as observed for IRP1WT. However, activation of RNA binding of c-aconS138E was an order of magnitude more sensitive to NO than for c-aconWT. Consistent with this, an altered set point between RNA-binding and aconitase forms was observed for IRP1S138E when expressed in HEK cells. Active c-aconS138E could only accumulate under hypoxic conditions, suggesting enhanced cluster disassembly in normoxia. Cluster disassembly mechanisms were further probed by determining the impact of iron chelation on acon activity. Unexpectedly EDTA rapidly inhibited c-aconS138E activity without affecting c-aconWT. Additional chelator experiments suggested that cluster loss can be initiated in c-aconS138E through a spontaneous nonoxidative demetallation process. Taken together, our results support a model wherein Ser138 phosphorylation sensitizes IRP1/c-acon to decreased iron availability by allowing the [4Fe-4S]2+ cluster to cycle with [3Fe-4S]0 in the absence of cluster perturbants, indicating that regulation can be initiated merely by changes in iron availability.

Iron regulatory protein-1 protects against mitoferrin-1-deficient porphyria.

Background: Heme and [Fe-S] cluster assembly are tightly regulated processes that require mitochondrial iron. Results: Loss of mitochondrial iron activates the [Fe-S]-dependent RNA-binding activity of IRP1 that inhibits protoporphyrin biosynthesis. Conclusion: IRP1 forms a critical feedback mechanism, preventing protoporphyrin accumulation under limiting mitochondrial iron conditions. Significance: This study provides evidence linking heme biogenesis to that of [Fe-S] clusters synthesis. Mitochondrial iron is essential for the biosynthesis of heme and iron-sulfur ([Fe-S]) clusters in mammalian cells. In developing erythrocytes, iron is imported into the mitochondria by MFRN1 (mitoferrin-1, SLC25A37). Although loss of MFRN1 in zebrafish and mice leads to profound anemia, mutant animals showed no overt signs of porphyria, suggesting that mitochondrial iron deficiency does not result in an accumulation of protoporphyrins. Here, we developed a gene trap model to provide in vitro and in vivo evidence that iron regulatory protein-1 (IRP1) inhibits protoporphyrin accumulation. Mfrn1+/gt;Irp1−/− erythroid cells exhibit a significant increase in protoporphyrin levels. IRP1 attenuates protoporphyrin biosynthesis by binding to the 5′-iron response element (IRE) of alas2 mRNA, inhibiting its translation. Ectopic expression of alas2 harboring a mutant IRE, preventing IRP1 binding, in Mfrn1gt/gt cells mimics Irp1 deficiency. Together, our data support a model whereby impaired mitochondrial [Fe-S] cluster biogenesis in Mfrn1gt/gt cells results in elevated IRP1 RNA-binding that attenuates ALAS2 mRNA translation and protoporphyrin accumulation.

A synergistic role of IRP1 and FBXL5 proteins in coordinating iron metabolism during cell proliferation

Iron-regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) belongs to a family of RNA-binding proteins that modulate metazoan iron metabolism. Multiple mechanisms are employed to control the action of IRP1 in dictating changes in the uptake and metabolic fate of iron. Inactivation of IRP1 RNA binding by iron primarily involves insertion of a [4Fe-4S] cluster by the cytosolic iron–sulfur cluster assembly (CIA) system, converting it into cytosolic aconitase (c-acon), but can also involve iron-mediated degradation of IRP1 by the E3 ligase FBXL5 that also targets IRP2. How CIA and FBXL5 collaborate to maintain cellular iron homeostasis through IRP1 and other pathways is poorly understood. Because impaired Fe-S cluster biogenesis associates with human disease, we determined the importance of FBXL5 for regulating IRP1 when CIA is impaired. Suppression of FBXL5 expression coupled with induction of an IRP1 mutant (IRP13C>3S) that cannot insert the Fe-S cluster, or along with knockdown of the CIA factors NUBP2 or FAM96A, reduced cell viability. Iron supplementation reversed this growth defect and was associated with FBXL5-dependent polyubiquitination of IRP1. Phosphorylation of IRP1 at Ser-138 increased when CIA was inhibited and was required for iron rescue. Impaired CIA activity, as noted by reduced c-acon activity, was associated with enhanced FBXL5 expression and a concomitant reduction in IRP1 and IRP2 protein level and RNA-binding activity. Conversely, expression of either IRP induced FBXL5 protein level, demonstrating a negative feedback loop limiting excessive accumulation of iron-response element RNA-binding activity, whose disruption reduces cell growth. We conclude that a regulatory circuit involving FBXL5 and CIA acts through both IRPs to control iron metabolism and promote optimal cell growth.