Lynn Price

Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions reduction opportunities in the US iron and steel sector

This article presents an in-depth analysis of cost-effective energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions reduction opportunities in the US iron and steel industry. We show that physical energy intensity for iron and steelmaking (at the aggregate level, standard Industrial Classification 331, 332) dropped 27%, from 35.6 GJ/tonne to 25.9 GJ/tonne between 1958 and 1994, while carbon dioxide intensity (carbon dioxide emissions expressed in tonnes of carbon per tonne of steel) dropped 39%. We provide a baseline for 1994 energy use and carbon dioxide emissions from US blast furnaces and steel mills (SIC 3312) disaggregated by the processes used in steelmaking. Energy-efficient practices and technologies are identified and analyzed for each of these processes. Examination of 47 specific energy efficiency technologies and measures found a total cost-effective reduction potential of 3.8 GJ/t, having a payback period of three years or less. This is equivalent to a potential energy efficiency improvement of 18% of 1994 US iron and steel energy use and is roughly equivalent to 19% reduction of 1994 US iron and steel carbon dioxide emissions. The measures have been ranked in a bottom-up energy conservation supply-curve.

Energy intensity in the iron and steel industry: a comparison of physical and economic indicators

Abstract Energy consumption of the iron and steel industry is examined in seven countries (Brazil, China, France, Germany, Japan, Poland and the United States) for the period 1980–1991. Using a decomposition analysis based on physical indicators for process type and product mix, we decompose intra-sectoral structural changes and efficiency improvements. Specific energy consumption decreased in all countries except Poland. Efficiency improvement played a key role in Brazil, China, Germany and the US, while structural changes were the main driver for energy savings in France and Japan. We also compare the use of various economic indicators to physical indicators and find that they do not track physical developments well in Poland or the developing countries we studied. In the industrialized countries, value added based energy intensity indicators generally reflect the specific energy consumption better than other economic indicators, although large differences occur in individual years. We found a smaller correlation between other economic indicators (gross output and value of shipments) and specific energy consumption. We conclude that use of physical energy intensity indicators improves comparability between countries, provides greater information for policy-makers regarding intra-sectoral structural changes, and provides detailed explanations for observed changes in energy intensity.

Potentials for energy efficiency improvement in the US cement industry

This paper reports on an in-depth analysis of the US cement industry, identifying cost-effective energy efficiency measures and potentials. Between 1970 and 1997, primary physical energy intensity for cement production (SIC 324) dropped 30%, from 7.9 GJ/t to 5.6 GJ/t, while specific carbon dioxide emissions due to fuel consumption and clinker calcination dropped 17%, from 0.29 tC/tonne to 0.24 tC/tonne. We examined 30 energy-efficient technologies and measures and estimated energy savings, carbon dioxide savings, investment costs, and operation and maintenance costs for each of the measures. We constructed an energy conservation supply curve for the US cement industry which found a total cost-effective energy saving of 11% of 1994 energy use for cement making and a saving of 5% of total 1994 carbon dioxide emissions. Assuming the increased production of blended cement, the technical potential for energy efficiency improvement would not change considerably. However, the cost-effective potential would increase to 18% of total energy use, and carbon dioxide emissions would be reduced by 16%. This demonstrates that the use of blended cements is a key cost-effective strategy for energy efficiency improvement and carbon dioxide emission reductions in the US cement industry.

ENERGY USE AND CARBON EMISSIONS FROM FREIGHT IN 10 INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES: AN ANALYSIS OF TRENDS FROM 1973 TO 1992

This paper reviews trends in freight activity and energy use in 10 industrialized countries from 1973 to 1992. We review changes in modes used to carry freight and analyze changes in the role of trucks. We carry out a decomposition of changes in freight energy use to identify the relative contribution of activity, modal structure, and energy intensity to the rise in energy use observed in each country. A similar analysis is carried out for carbon emissions, one of the many environmental problems associated with freight. Our three major findings are: (1) domestic freight volumes rose, with trucks carrying most of the increment, in almost every country we studied, (2) freight energy use and associated carbon emissions increased markedly and are rising vis-a-vis those associated with passenger travel in the 10 industrialized countries studied, and (3) energy use for freight will continue to rise unless there are substantial reductions in the energy intensities of truck freight. We conclude that restraining or reducing emissions from freight will be particularly difficult because the factors that increased energy use and emissions for freight in the past are still important to raising energy use for freight. Noting that emissions from most other sectors have either fallen or grown less than freight, we discuss technologies and policies that might lead to restraint in this sector in the future.

Energy use and carbon dioxide emissions from steel production in China

In 1996, China manufactured just over 100Mt of steel and became the worlds largest steel producer. Official Chinese energy consumption statistics for the steel industry include activities not directly associated with the production of steel, ‘double-count’ some coal-based energy consumption, and do not cover the entire Chinese steelmaking industry. In this paper, we make adjustements to the reported statistical data in order to provide energy use values for steel production in China that are comparable to statistics used internationally. We find that for 1996, official statistics need to be reduced by 1365PJ to account for non-steel production activities and double-counting. Official statistics also need to be increased by 415PJ in order to include steelmaking energy use of small plants not included in official statistics. This leads to an overall reduction of 950PJ for steelmaking in China in 1996. Thus, the official final energy use value of 4018PJ drops to 3067PJ. In primary energy terms, the official primary energy use value of 4555PJ is reduced to 3582PJ when these adjustments are made.

Opportunities to improve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. pulp and paper industry

LBNL-46141 E RNEST O RLANDO L AWRENCE B ERKELEY N ATIONAL L ABORATORY Opportunities to Improve Energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry N. Martin, N. Anglani, D. Einstein, M. Khrushch, E. Worrell, and L.K. Price Environmental Energy Technologies Division July 2000 This work was supported by the Climate Protection Division, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098.

Emerging energy-efficient industrial technologies

LBNL 46990 E RNEST O RLANDO L AWRENCE B ERKELEY N ATIONAL L ABORATORY EMERGING ENERGY-EFFICIENT INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES N. Martin, E. Worrell, M. Ruth, L. Price LBNL R.N. Elliott, A.M. Shipley, J. Thorne ACEEE Environmental Energy Technologies Division October 2000 This work was supported by the Climate Protection Division, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098.

Energy Efficiency Improvement Opportunities for the Cement Industry

This report provides information on the energy savings, costs, and carbon dioxide emissions reductions associated with implementation of a number of technologies and measures applicable to the cement industry. The technologies and measures include both state-of-the-art measures that are currently in use in cement enterprises worldwide as well as advanced measures that are either only in limited use or are near commercialization. This report focuses mainly on retrofit measures using commercially available technologies, but many of these technologies are applicable for new plants as well. Where possible, for each technology or measure, costs and energy savings per tonne of cement produced are estimated and then carbon dioxide emissions reductions are calculated based on the fuels used at the process step to which the technology or measure is applied. The analysis of cement kiln energy-efficiency opportunities is divided into technologies and measures that are applicable to the different stages of production and various kiln types used in China: raw materials (and fuel) preparation; clinker making (applicable to all kilns, rotary kilns only, vertical shaft kilns only); and finish grinding; as well as plant wide measures and product and feedstock changes that will reduce energy consumption for clinker making. Table 1 lists all measures in this report by process to which they apply, including plant wide measures and product or feedstock changes. Tables 2 through 8 provide the following information for each technology: fuel and electricity savings per tonne of cement; annual operating and capital costs per tonne of cement or estimated payback period; and, carbon dioxide emissions reductions for each measure applied to the production of cement. This information was originally collected for a report on the U.S. cement industry (Worrell and Galitsky, 2004) and a report on opportunities for Chinas cement kilns (Price and Galitsky, in press). The information provided in this report is based on publicly-available reports, journal articles, and case studies from applications of technologies around the world.

Sectoral trends and driving forces of global energy use and greenhouse gas emissions

Disaggregation of sectoral energy use and greenhouse gas emissions trends reveals striking differences between sectors and regions of the world. Understanding key driving forces in the energy end-use sectors provides insights for development of projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines global and regional historical trends in energy use and carbon emissions in the industrial, buildings, transport, and agriculture sectors. Activity and economic drivers as well as trends in energy and carbon intensity are evaluated. We show that macro-economic indicators, such as GDP, are insufficient for comprehending trends and driving forces at the sectoral level. These indicators need to be supplemented with sector-specific information for a more complete understanding of future energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.

Electricity end-use efficiency: Experience with technologies, markets, and policies throughout the world

There is a wealth of experience among industrialized countries with technologies and policies to increase electricity end-use efficiency. Some developing countries are beginning to adopt these technologies and policies as well. Technologies include efficient residual appliances. HVAC equipment, light, motors and efficient industrial processes. A small number of market failures that limit the acceptance of these efficient technologies in both industrialized and developing countries are described. Experience with policies to overcome these failures and promote electricity end-use efficiency, including information programs, appliance efficiency standards, financial incentives to appliance manufacturers, commercial building energy standards, integrated resource planning, and demand-side management, is reviewed.