M. Sertoli

Impurity seeding for tokamak power exhaust: from present devices via ITER to DEMO

A future fusion reactor is expected to have all-metal plasma facing materials (PFMs) to ensure low erosion rates, low tritium retention and stability against high neutron fluences. As a consequence, intrinsic radiation losses in the plasma edge and divertor are low in comparison to devices with carbon PFMs. To avoid localized overheating in the divertor, intrinsic low-Z and medium-Z impurities have to be inserted into the plasma to convert a major part of the power flux into radiation and to facilitate partial divertor detachment. For burning plasma conditions in ITER, which operates not far above the L–H threshold power, a high divertor radiation level will be mandatory to avoid thermal overload of divertor components. Moreover, in a prototype reactor, DEMO, a high main plasma radiation level will be required in addition for dissipation of the much higher alpha heating power. For divertor plasma conditions in present day tokamaks and in ITER, nitrogen appears most suitable regarding its radiative characteristics. If elevated main chamber radiation is desired as well, argon is the best candidate for the simultaneous enhancement of core and divertor radiation, provided sufficient divertor compression can be obtained. The parameter Psep/R, the power flux through the separatrix normalized by the major radius, is suggested as a suitable scaling (for a given electron density) for the extrapolation of present day divertor conditions to larger devices. The scaling for main chamber radiation from small to large devices has a higher, more favourable dependence of about Prad,main/R2. Krypton provides the smallest fuel dilution for DEMO conditions, but has a more centrally peaked radiation profile compared to argon. For investigation of the different effects of main chamber and divertor radiation and for optimization of their distribution, a double radiative feedback system has been implemented in ASDEX Upgrade (AUG). About half the ITER/DEMO values of Psep/R have been achieved so far, and close to DEMO values of Prad,main/R2, albeit at lower Psep/R. Further increase of this parameter may be achieved by increasing the neutral pressure or improving the divertor geometry.

First scenario development with the JET new ITER-like wall

In the recent JET experimental campaigns with the new ITER-like wall (JET-ILW), major progress has been achieved in the characterization and operation of the H-mode regime in metallic environments: (i) plasma breakdown has been achieved at the first attempt and X-point L-mode operation recovered in a few days of operation; (ii) stationary and stable type-I ELMy H-modes with beta(N) similar to 1.4 have been achieved in low and high triangularity ITER-like shape plasmas and are showing that their operational domain at H = 1 is significantly reduced with the JET-ILW mainly because of the need to inject a large amount of gas (above 10(22) Ds(-1)) to control core radiation; (iii) in contrast, the hybrid H-mode scenario has reached an H factor of 1.2-1.3 at beta(N) of 3 for 2-3 s; and, (iv) in comparison to carbon equivalent discharges, total radiation is similar but the edge radiation is lower and Z(eff) of the order of 1.3-1.4. Strong core radiation peaking is observed in H-mode discharges at a low gas fuelling rate (i. e. below 0.5 x 10(22) Ds(-1)) and low ELM frequency (typically less than 10 Hz), even when the tungsten influx from the diverter is constant. High-Z impurity transport from the plasma edge to the core appears to be the dominant factor to explain these observations. This paper reviews the major physics and operational achievements and challenges that an ITER-like wall configuration has to face to produce stable plasma scenarios with maximized performance.

First operation with the JET International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor-like wall

To consolidate International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) design choices and prepare for its operation, Joint European Torus (JET) has implemented ITERs plasma facing materials, namely, Be for the main wall and W in the divertor. In addition, protection systems, diagnostics, and the vertical stability control were upgraded and the heating capability of the neutral beams was increased to over 30 MW. First results confirm the expected benefits and the limitations of all metal plasma facing components (PFCs) but also yield understanding of operational issues directly relating to ITER. H-retention is lower by at least a factor of 10 in all operational scenarios compared to that with C PFCs. The lower C content (≈ factor 10) has led to much lower radiation during the plasma burn-through phase eliminating breakdown failures. Similarly, the intrinsic radiation observed during disruptions is very low, leading to high power loads and to a slow current quench. Massive gas injection using a D2/Ar mixtu...

Long-term evolution of the impurity composition and impurity events with the ITER-like wall at JET

This paper covers aspects of long-term evolution of intrinsic impurities in the JET tokamak with respect to the newly installed ITER-like wall (ILW). At first the changes related to the change over from the JET-C to the JET-ILW with beryllium (Be) as the main wall material and tungsten (W) in the divertor are discussed. The evolution of impurity fluxes in the newly installed W divertor with respect to studying material migration is described. In addition, a statistical analysis of transient impurity events causing significant plasma contamination and radiation losses is shown. The main findings comprise a drop in carbon content (×20) (see also Brezinsek et al (2013 J. Nucl. Mater. 438 S303)), low oxygen content (×10) due to the Be first wall (Douai et al 2013 J. Nucl. Mater. 438 S1172–6) as well as the evolution of the material mix in the divertor. Initially, a short period of repetitive ohmic plasmas was carried out to study material migration (Krieger et al 2013 J. Nucl. Mater. 438 S262). After the initial 1600 plasma seconds the material surface composition is, however, still evolving. With operational time, the levels of recycled C are increasing slightly by 20% while the Be levels in the deposition-dominated inner divertor are dropping, hinting at changes in the surface layer material mix made of Be, C and W. A steady number of transient impurity events, consisting of W and constituents of inconel, is observed despite the increase in variation in machine operation and changes in magnetic configuration as well as the auxiliary power increase.

Assimilation of impurities during massive gas injection in ASDEX Upgrade

Experiments of disruption mitigation with massive gas injection are conducted in ASDEX Upgrade with fast valves located close to the plasma. The valves and the dedicated experiment are described in this paper. The dependence of the fuelling efficiency on plasma and gas parameters is documented and discussed. Several sources of uncertainties affecting its evaluation and physical interpretation have been addressed. An actual fuelling efficiency of 40% has been reached for neon injection with valves close to the plasma and for gas quantities relevant for the thermal and current quench mitigation of ITER. Refuelling the plasma after thermal quench is shown to be feasible; this result opens the possibility of raising the density in a runaway beam and therefore of increasing the collisional drag on and the radiative energy losses of the fast electrons.

Transient impurity events in JET with the new ITER-like wall

Transient impurity events leading to an unexpected increase in radiated power have been studied in JET from the installation of the ITER-like wall. A total of 1800 events over 2800 plasma discharges have been detected. None have led to permanent changes in the plasma conditions. Of all the events 60% show traces of W and 25% of either Ni, Fe or Cr from either Inconel or steel structures. They occur mainly in diverted magnetic configuration, independently of strike-point position. The effect of disruptions on dust redistribution has been investigated using the Thomson scattering diagnostic and correlated with transient impurity event occurrence. The number of dust events detected increases with disruption force and, in comparison to the full-C wall, the amount of dust mobilized is found to be about an order of magnitude lower. Their time evolution correlates well with that of the transient impurity events.

Interplay between central ECRH and saturated (m, n) = (1, 1) MHD activity in mitigating tungsten accumulation at ASDEX Upgrade

The interplay between central electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) and saturated (m, n) = (1, 1) magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities in mitigating central W accumulation at ASDEX Upgrade is analysed. The evolution of the intrinsic tungsten density in a typical ASDEX Upgrade H-mode discharge with central ECRH and saturated (1, 1) modes in-between sawtooth crashes is presented. The W density profile evaluated averaging over mode rotation and assuming axisymmetry are deeply hollow inside the q = 1 surface during mode saturation. In order to provide a mode-resolved picture, a new technique for the determination of 2D mode-resolved intrinsic W density maps in the presence of saturated MHD instabilities is developed. For the first time the full decoupling of the impurity density from electron density and temperature contributions to experimental 2D SXR tomographic reconstructions in the presence of saturated MHD activity can be performed. These mode-resolved 2D W density maps reveal that the impurity hole is located inside the displaced core of the saturated (1, 1) mode, while the W density inside the magnetic island is flat. Modelling the W density using the combined neoclassical and gyrokinetic codes NEO and GKW assuming axisymmetry and including the effects of toroidal rotation reproduces the poloidal asymmetries outside of the q = 1 surface correctly, but predicts centrally peaked W density profiles in the centre. This suggests that the hollowness inside the q = 1 surface is tied to the presence of the saturated (1, 1) mode.

Modification of impurity transport in the presence of saturated (m,n) = (1,1) MHD activity at ASDEX Upgrade

Impurity transport in sawtoothing plasmas in the presence of long lived inter-crash MHD activity is analysed in an ASDEX Upgrade discharge. In order to describe the time-evolution of the soft x-ray (SXR) time-traces after argon trace impurity injection, two sets of transport coefficients, switching at the onset of the mode, are necessary. The non-linear time evolution of the background SXR emissivity leads on the other hand to systematic errors that cannot be eliminated from the transport analysis. Typical experimental methods for the determination of the transport coefficients are demonstrated to be inapplicable and a way to determine the intrinsic density form a combination of SXR and vaccum-ultraviolet measurements is explained. Ideas for new ways to probe impurity transport in two dimensions in the presence of long-lived MHD activity are given.

Non-monotonic growth rates of sawtooth precursors evidenced with a new method on ASDEX Upgrade

This paper describes a new method to derive, from soft x-ray (SXR) tomography, robust estimates of the core displacement, growth rate and frequency of a 1/1 sawtooth crash precursor. The method is valid for very peaked SXR profiles and is robust against both the inversion algorithm and the presence of tungsten in a rotating plasma. Three typical ASDEX Upgrade crashes are then analysed. In all cases a postcursor is observed, suggesting incomplete reconnection. Despite different dynamics, in all three cases the growth rate of the core displacement shows similar features. First, it is not constant, supporting the idea of non-linear growth. Second, it can be divided into clearly identified phases with quasi-constant growth rates, suggesting sudden change of growth regime rather than smooth transitions. Third, its evolution is non-monotonic, with phases of accelerated growth followed by damped phases. This damping is interpreted for two cases respectively as an effect of fast ions and of mode coupling, based on the result of a MHD simulation. The mode frequency is observed in all cases to be closely related to the plasma bulk rotation profile, with little or no visible effect of the electron diamagnetic drift frequency. The onset criterion could not be clearly identified and it is shown that the role of the pressure gradient is not as expected from a naive extrapolation of the linear stability theory.

Characterization of saturated MHD instabilities through 2D electron temperature profile reconstruction from 1D ECE measurements

A new method for the reconstruction of two-dimensional (2D) electron temperature profiles in the presence of saturated magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) modes from the one-dimensional (1D) electron cyclotron emission (ECE) diagnostic is presented. The analysis relies on harmonic decomposition of the electron temperature oscillations through short time Fourier transforms and requires rigid poloidal mode rotation as the only assumption. The method is applicable to any magnetic perturbation as long as the poloidal and toroidal mode numbers m and n are known. Its application to the case of a (m, n) = (1, 1) internal kink mode on ASDEX Upgrade is presented and a new way to estimate the mode displacement is explained. For such modes, it is shown that the higher order harmonics usually visible in the ECE spectrogram arise also for the pure m = n = 1 mode and that they cannot be directly associated with m = n > 1 magnetic perturbations. This method opens up new possibilities for electron heat transport studies in the presence of saturated MHD modes and a way to disentangle the impurity density contributions from electron temperature effects in the analysis of the soft x-ray data.