Martin F. Davies

Affective reactions to auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangelical and control groups

OBJECTIVES Building on recent work on the similarities and differences in delusional ideation between psychotic and religious populations (Peters, Day, McKenna, & Orbach, 1999), the experiences of auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangelical and control groups were examined in this study. METHOD The incidence and subjective experiences of hearing voices were assessed using questionnaire methods in psychotic out-patients, evangelical Christians and controls (non-psychotic, non-evangelical). RESULTS Incidence of auditory hallucinations differed significantly across the three groups with psychotics showing the highest levels and controls the lowest levels. The experiences of the evangelical group were significantly more positive than those of the control group, which in turn were significantly more positive than those of the psychotic group. The most recent experience of hearing voices was rated more positively than the first experience by the psychotic and religious groups but not by the control group. These findings were much stronger for affective reactions to the experiences than for perceptions of the voices. CONCLUSION These results provide only partial support for the findings of Peters et al. (1999) on differences in delusional ideation and possible reasons for this are discussed. The findings for religious and psychotic individuals are discussed further in terms of interpretational and coping mechanisms.

Reduction of hindsight bias by restoration of foresight perspective: Effectiveness of foresight-encoding and hindsight-retrieval strategies

Abstract Reduction of hindsight bias in judgments of outcomes of psychology experiments was examined in three studies designed to manipulate the availability of foresight cognitions in hindsight. In Experiment 1, subjects provided with a written record of their cognitions, thoughts, and reasons generated in foresight showed less hindsight bias than subjects who were not provided with such a record of their foresight cognitions. Experiment 2 investigated the role of foresight encoding elaboration by comparing hindsight judgments of subjects who had produced a written record of their foresight cognitions with those of subjects who had not produced a written record of their foresight cognitions. Hindsight bias was not significantly reduced by this manipulation of foresight encoding-elaboration. Experiment 3 compared the review-of-foresight-cognitions manipulation of Experiment 1 with a hindsight generation-of-reasons manipulation previously found to be effective in reducing hindsight bias. The foresight-review manipulation was not found to be superior to the hindsight-generation manipulation in reducing hindsight bias. The findings were discussed in terms of memory mechanisms involved in hindsight bias, foresight encoding strategies, and real-world constraints on the use of such strategies.

Field dependence and hindsight bias: Cognitive restructuring and the generation of reasons

Abstract Cognitive restructuring differences between field dependents and field independents were investigated in the hindsight paradigm using general knowledge items. Experiment 1 found significantly greater hindsight bias in field dependents than in field independents both for items that had been previously rated (“memory”) and for items that had not been previously rated (“hypothetical”). Experiment 2 examined the role of cognitive restructuring more directly via experimental manipulations of reason generation. Hindsight generation of reasons contradicting the correct answer reduced hindsight bias significantly compared with generation of supporting reasons or no reasons. However, this reduction in hindsight bias was much more marked in field dependents than in field independents, despite the fact that field dependents had greater difficulty generating contradictory reasons. Results were discussed in terms of field dependence-independence differences in the spontaneous generation of reasons.

Self-Deceptive Enhancement and Impression Management Correlates of EPQ-R Dimensions

The Self-Deceptive Enhancement and Impression Management scales of the Paulhus (1991) Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding were correlated with the Psychoticism, Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Lie scales of the Eysenck EPQ-R (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1991) in a student sample. Extraversion correlated positively and Neuroticism correlated negatively with Self-Deceptive Enhancement, whereas Psychoticism correlated negatively and the Lie scale correlated positively with Impression Management. These findings suggest that the EPQ-R scales are involved in different aspects of socially desirable responding. It was concluded that social desirability should not be controlled in measures of Extraversion and Neuroticism but it should be controlled in measures of Psychoticism.

Confirmatory Bias in the Evaluation of Personality Descriptions: Positive Test Strategies and Output Interference

The operation of confirmatory bias in the endorsement of personality descriptions was examined in 4 studies. Unlike M. F. Davies (1997), who provided only inferential evidence for the role of this bias, the present studies provided direct evidence through the experimental manipulation of supporting versus contradictory cognitions. Generating supporting thoughts resulted in greater acceptance whereas generating contradictory thoughts resulted in lower acceptance of personality descriptions. Supporting cognitions were found to be generated before contradictory cognitions in line with a positive test strategy but evidence was also found for an output interference effect (generating one type of thought interfered with the generation of the opposite type) and it was suggested that confirmatory bias is due to the operation of both mechanisms.

The colours of love: Personality correlates of love styles

Abstract This study examined the extent to which Lees (1976) love styles have trait characteristics. Male and female college students ranging in age from 18 to 56 yr completed various personality inventories and the Hendrick and Hendrick (1986) love-style questionnaire. Results showed that self esteem was positively correlated with Eros, but negatively with Mania, Storge and Agape. Emotionality was positively correlated with Mania and Ludus, but negatively with Eros. Impulsivity was also correlated positively with Mania and Ludus. Canonical correlation analysis showed that the link between personality and love style was due mainly to associations between self esteem, emotionality and mania. The findings were discussed in terms of state and trait factors in loving relationships.

Socially Desirable Responding and Impression Management in the Endorsement of Love Styles

Abstract In 2 experiments, the researcher investigated the social desirability of different love styles (Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, Mania, and Agape). In Experiment 1, the Marlowe-Crowne measure of social desirability (D. P. Crowne & D. Marlowe, 1960) was correlated negatively with possessive, dependent (Mania) love styles in both men and women. In men, social desirability was correlated positively with romantic, passionate love (Eros) and game-playing love (Ludus), but negatively with all-giving, selfless love (Agape). In women, social desirability was correlated positively with Agape, but negatively with Ludus. In Experiment 2, the researcher replicated these findings using an impression management manipulation (good, bad, and honest responding). The gender differences in social desirability of different love styles are explained in terms of traditional and nontraditional gender role socialization.

EPQ correlates of love styles

Abstract This study examined personality correlates of love styles using the Eysenck EPQ and the Lee love style questionnaires. Extraversion was found to be positively correlated with Eros and Ludus. Neuroticism was positively correlated with Mania and negatively correlated with Pragma. Psychoticism was found to be negatively related to Agape and Storge and positively related to Ludus. Results of a factor analysis showed that the dimensions of the EPQ are clearly associated with different styles of loving.

Aunty’s Own Argument for the Language of Thought

Fodor has launched many arguments in Aunty’s direction since The Language of Thought (1975), and the assault has not ceased. Even since Psychosemantics (1987a), there has been Fodor and Pylyshyn’s (1988) attack on connectionism and its followers, amongst whom they number—qua “NewConnectionist Groupie” (Fodor 1987a,p. 139)—Aunty.

Self-focused attention and belief perseverance

Abstract The perseverance of an erroneous belief was investigated in the debriefing paradigm as a function of self-focused attention. Subjects were given either success or failure experiences via bogus performance feedback and received this feedback under high or low mirror self-focusing. All subjects were subsequently debriefed about the false nature of the feedback, and then, before answering questions about their estimated actual performance and ability, mirror self-focus was again manipulated. The results showed that self-focus prior to debriefing increased belief perseverance while self-focus after debriefing reduced the perseverance effects. Discussion of these findings emphasized the role of self-focus in information processing before and adherence to veridical standards after debriefing.