Maureen Schaefer

Comparison of Ages of Epiphyseal Union in North American and Bosnian Skeletal Material

The accurate determination of age at death is a critical component in the analysis of human skeletal remains. Population specific techniques are often used without due consideration of the provenance of the material being studied. This communication considers the ages at which epiphyseal union occur in young Bosnian males and compares those findings to data published by McKern and Stewart on young North American soldiers killed during the Korean War. Of the ten epiphyses considered in this study, all elements were observed to be at least two years in advance in the Bosnian sample compared to the American sample. This article demonstrates that whilst standards based on an American sample produce broadly applicable age ranges for use on forensic work in the Balkans, the age ranges generated produce an upper age limit that is often two or more years older than the chronological age. Therefore, it is desirable, that wherever possible, appropriate standards should be devised for more accurate aging reflecting population specific profiles.

Development of the femur—Implications for age and sex determination

Growth of four variables of the femur (diapyseal length, diaphyseal length plus distal epiphysis, maximum length and vertical diameter of the head) was analyzed by polynomial regression for the purpose of evaluating its significance and capacity for age and sex determination throughout the entire life continuum. Materials included in analysis consisted of 346 specimens ranging from birth to 97 years of age from five documented osteological collections of Western European descent. Linear growth was displayed by each of the four variables. Significant sexual dimorphism was identified in two of the femoral measurements, including maximum length and vertical diameter of the head, from age 15 onward. These results indicate that the two variables may be of use in the determination of sex in sex determination from that age onward. Strong correlation coefficients were identified between femoral size and age for each of the four metric variables. These results indicate that any of the femoral measurements is likely to serve as a useful source to estimate sub-adult age in both archaeological and forensic samples.

Epiphyseal union sequencing: Aiding in the recognition and sorting of commingled remains

ABSTRACT: The presence of accessory osseous material within a seemingly single individual assemblage has the potential to result in misidentification of the remains. Detection of nonrelated material relies on the anthropologist being able to recognize incongruities among the elements. Inconsistencies in developmental status provide evidence to suggest that commingling may have occurred. Analyzing the sequence in which the various epiphyses unite can help to identify outlying elements that do not match the predicted developmental pattern of the remaining skeleton, thus indicating that the element may not belong to that individual. This paper considers the sequence in which 21 various epiphyses of the body unite to serve as a reference for identifying incongruent fusing patterns within a commingled assemblage. Two hundred and fifty‐eight male individuals of Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) descent between the ages of 14 and 30 years were included for analysis. Sequence order was determined for both “beginning” and “complete” union by comparing the fusing status of each epiphysis with each of the other 21 epiphyses. Considering both sequence patterns provides a wider spectrum of evidence from which to recognize incongruities than either sequence pattern could provide in isolation. Variations to the majority sequence pattern were also included to ensure that skeletons displaying less popular but acceptable sequence patterns would not be mistakenly considered as two individuals when using this research as a reference. Although substantial variation in the order in which epiphyses initiate and complete union was discovered within the sample, most epiphyseal relationships did not display any variable patterns. These “unvaried” relationships will be most useful in recognizing the presence of incongruent material if the pattern within an assemblage does not conform to the pattern documented in this study. Figures demonstrating the two sequence patterns are provided for easy application in the field.

Patterns of Epiphyseal Union and Their Use in the Detection and Sorting of Commingled Remains

The utility of epiphyseal union as a means of estimating the age of juvenile remains is well known and documented. Less thoroughly investigated, however equally valuable, is the application of epiphyseal union in the recognition and sorting of commingled remains (Buikstra et al. 1984; L’Abbe 2005; Owsley et al. 1995; Schaefer and Black 2007). Detection of commingled remains is most easily accomplished through the recognition of duplicate elements within an assemblage, i.e., two left femora. In the absence of repeated elements, however, commingling episodes are more difficult to recognize and rely on the anthropologist to detect discrepancies between skeletal elements within the assemblage. Inconsistencies often include variations in size and shape of bilateral elements, disproportionate upper and lower body measurements, or discrepancies in the age, sex, or racial attributes of materials within the assemblage (Buikstra et al. 1984; Byrd and Adams 2003; L’Abbe 2005; Owsley et al. 1995; Snow 1948; Snow and Folk 1970). In much the same way, status of epiphyseal union can serve as a tool to recognize incongruities in the maturity level of different elements. This technique is useful for identifying commingling episodes between juvenile remains mixed with that of either additional juvenile or adult material. While discrepancies between juvenile and adult material may seem obvious, they are less conspicuous if the juvenile skeleton has approximated full maturity, and many epiphyseal elements would be expected to display complete union. The ability to detect discrepancies in the developmental status of juvenile material nearing maturity requires an understanding of the association between union phases of different epiphyses. Three lines of evidence can be used to guide this understanding: (1) the sequence in which the epiphyses initiate union; (2) the sequence in which the epiphyses complete union; and (3) an understanding of the epiphyses that complete union before other epiphyses begin union. Sequences of “beginning” and “complete” union have been previously documented by Schaefer and Black (2007), while the relationship between beginning and complete union will be formally examined within this chapter. Once phase associations between epiphyses are understood, the documented patterns can serve as a reference from which to recognize potentially incompatible material. Epiphyseal elements that do

A Practical Method for Detecting Commingled Remains Using Epiphyseal Union

The utility of epiphyseal union as a means of estimating the chronological age of juvenile remains is well known and documented. Less thoroughly investigated, however equally valuable, is the application of epiphyseal union in the recognition and sorting of commingled remains. Detection of commingled remains is most easily accomplished through the recognition of duplicate elements within an assemblage, e.g., two left femora. In the absence of repeated elements, however, commingling episodes are more difficult to recognize and rely on the anthropologist to detect discrepancies between skeletal elements within the assemblage. The aim of this chapter is to present a user-friendly epiphyseal recording form that quickly highlights areas of possible incongruent fusing patterns. Once suspect areas are recognized, then the sequence trees and antenna diagram can be referenced to add support to or reject suspicions. This process of quick recognition followed by more detailed investigation is demonstrated using two sample cases.

The Head and Neck

This chapter provides a pictorial description of the various constituents of the head and neck. It starts with describing the fetal skull providing anterior, lateral, superior, and basal descriptions. The occipital is discussed with identification and orientation of the pars squama, pars lateralis, and pars basilaris. A comparison between the left perinatal scapula and the right pars lateralis from the same skeleton is also given. This chapter provides notes on metrics, Fazekas and Ko´sa, and Scheuer and MacLaughlin-Black. It then describes the temporal using an account on pars squama, postnatal growth and fusion, and notes on metrics. The principal components, orientation, and identification of the sphenoid, right fetal and right perinatal nasal, frontal, right perinatal ethmoid labyrinth, inferior nasal, lacrimal, perinatal vomal, zygomatic, maxilla, palatine, mandible, and hyoid are also elaborated along with metrics. It mentions the source used for the description of each constituent. This chapter also provides a morphological summary at the end of describing every constituent.

A Decade of Development in Juvenile Aging

Multiple developments for juvenile age estimation have occurred over the last decade, including advancements in methodology and practice. In particular, there has been an effort to encompass human variation through the creation of population-based aging standards that acknowledge ancestral, secular, and socioeconomic differences. The need to estimate the age of living children has also become increasingly necessary in modern times. Thus, there has been a surge in the use of medical technologies, such as conventional radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, and computed tomography, to develop standards associated with age estimation. This chapter highlights those works in addition to papers incorporating less mainstream, albeit just as important, trends.

Effect of Shoe Stiffness on Injury Produced Under External Rotation of the Foot in Human Cadavers

Ankle sprain is a common occurrence in sports, accounting for 10–30% of injuries9. Injury to the lateral ligamentous complex occurs under excessive foot inversion and is known as a “lateral ankle sprain”1. Injury to the anterior deltoid ligament (ADL), which consists of the tibionavicular ligament (TiNL) and the anterior tibiotalar ligament (ATiTL), is known as a “medial ankle sprain”13. High ankle sprains occur in the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis, which is comprised of the anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments (ATiFL and PTiFL) and the interosseous ligament (IOL)2. While approximately 85% of ankle sprains are lateral ankle injuries, syndesmotic (high) and medial injuries typically result in more time off the field. The mechanism of both high and medial ankle sprain is commonly ascribed to excessive internal rotation of the upper body, while the foot is planted on the playing surface.Copyright

Summaries, Recording Forms, and Practical Sequencing Information

This chapter is designed to present an overview on summaries, recording forms, and practical sequencing information. Summary illustrations are provided to serve as a quick source for obtaining useful aging information on each bone. Aging forms have been designed to provide practical parameters for estimating age based on the observed status of various osseous materials. Two general techniques for age estimation are the appearance and union of primary and secondary ossification centers. For specific and more accurate information regarding aging, standards derived from a representative population, with comparable means of assessment should be consulted. Skeletal recording forms consist of a series of three recording forms, representing three life stages (perinatal remains, early childhood, and late childhood/adolescence) and this permits a more realistic template of the skeletal development. This offers the practitioner a general idea of the ossification centers and the union that might be expected to be present based on the broad life stage of the individual. Skull recording forms comprise of a series of two forms, representing perinatal and early childhood development. Epiphyseal sequencing is an aid to recognize commingled remains. Understanding the sequence in which epiphyses begin and complete, union can be used as an important tool in the detection and separation of commingled remains. Osseous material that is recognized as developmentally incompatible may provide sufficient evidence to indicate the presence of two or more individuals. Documentation of union sequence among the epiphyses helps to identify outlying elements whose union status does not adhere to expected sequencing patterns, thereby suggesting the presence of commingled remains.

Chapter 4 – The Thorax

Publisher Summary This chapter presents a pictorial description of the thorax with an elaborate explanation of the sternum and ribs. It begins with a description of the development of manubrium and mesosternum. Reliable orientation of the manubrium is possible by approximately six months post partum but does not occur for sternebrae until older than two to three years. Manubrial epiphyses include the suprasternal and articular manubrial flakes, as well as flakes at the first and second costal notches. This chapter includes assessments on the appearance timings and union timings using different references and sources. It then moves to the discussion of the ribs. Rib fragments may be misidentified as unfused vertebral arches. They will display fractured edges in comparison to the immature edges of unfused vertebral arches. The orientation of first, typical, and floating ribs is mentioned in this chapter. This chapter then describes epiphyseal flakes on the head, articular and non-articular regions of the ribs. It also gives accounts on metrics and closes with a morphological summary.