Miles Brodie

Pulsed laser deposited Si on multilayer graphene as anode material for lithium ion batteries

Pulsed laser deposition and chemical vapor deposition were used to deposit very thin silicon on multilayer graphene (MLG) on a nickel foam substrate for application as an anode material for lithium ion batteries. The as-grown material was directly fabricated into an anode without a binder, and tested in a half-cell configuration. Even under stressful voltage limits that accelerate degradation, the Si-MLG films displayed higher stability than Si-only electrodes. Post-cycling images of the anodes reveal the differences between the two material systems and emphasize the role of the graphene layers in improving adhesion and electrochemical stability of the Si.

Reliability, failure modes, and degradation mechanisms in high power single- and multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well lasers

High power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are critical components for both telecommunications and potential space satellite communications systems. However, little has been reported on failure modes of state-of-the-art SM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing these lasers that meet lifetime requirements for space satellite systems, where extremely high reliability of these lasers is required. Our present study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term life tests under different test conditions followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) and physics of failure investigation. We performed long-term accelerated life-tests on state-of-the-art SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC (automatic current control) mode. Our life-tests have accumulated over 25,000 test hours for SM lasers and over 35,000 test hours for MM lasers. FMA was performed on failed SM lasers using electron beam induced current (EBIC). This technique allowed us to identify failure types by observing dark line defects. All the SM failures we studied showed catastrophic and sudden degradation and all of these failures were bulk failures. Our group previously reported that bulk failure or COBD (catastrophic optical bulk damage) is the dominant failure mode of MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that the dominant failure mode of both SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers is the bulk failure. Since degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD are still not well understood, we also employed other techniques including focused ion beam (FIB) processing and high-resolution TEM to further study dark line defects and dislocations in post-aged SM and MM lasers. Our long-term life test results and FMA results are reported.

Conductive paths through polycrystalline BaTiO3: Scanning probe microscopy study

The microstructural features determining the leakage current through polycrystalline BaTiO3 films are investigated using Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy. Grain boundaries are found to be the dominant conductive paths compared to the conduction through the grains. Grain boundary currents are observed to reversibly rise with the increase of the applied DC voltages, indicating that the current is controlled by a field-activated charge transport process.

Degradation mechanisms in high-power multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well lasers for high-reliability applications

Laser diode manufacturers perform accelerated multi-cell lifetests to estimate lifetimes of lasers using an empirical model. Since state-of-the-art laser diodes typically require a long period of latency before they degrade, significant amount of stress is applied to the lasers to generate failures in relatively short test durations. A drawback of this approach is the lack of mean-time-to-failure data under intermediate and low stress conditions, leading to uncertainty in model parameters (especially optical power and current exponent) and potential overestimation of lifetimes at usage conditions. This approach is a concern especially for satellite communication systems where high reliability is required of lasers for long-term duration in the space environment. A number of groups have studied reliability and degradation processes in GaAs-based lasers, but none of these studies have yielded a reliability model based on the physics of failure. The lack of such a model is also a concern for space applications where complete understanding of degradation mechanisms is necessary. Our present study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term lifetests under low stress conditions followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) and physics of failure investigation. We performed low-stress lifetests on both MBE- and MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs- AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC (automatic current control) mode to study low-stress degradation mechanisms. Our lifetests have accumulated over 36,000 test hours and FMA is performed on failures using our angle polishing technique followed by EL. This technique allows us to identify failure types by observing dark line defects through a window introduced in backside metal contacts. We also investigated degradation mechanisms in MOCVD-grown broad-area InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers using various FMA techniques. Since it is a challenge to control defect densities during the growth of laser structures, we chose to control defect densities by introducing extrinsic point defects to the laser via proton irradiation with different energies and fluences. These lasers were subsequently lifetested to study degradation processes in the lasers with different defect densities and also to study precursor signatures of failures - traps and non-radiative recombination centers (NRCs) in pre- and post-stressed lasers. Lastly, we employed focused ion beam (FIB), electron beam induced current (EBIC), and highresolution TEM (HR-TEM) techniques to further study dark line defects and dislocations in both post-aged and postproton irradiated lasers. We report on our long-term low-stress lifetest results and physics of failure investigation results.

Destructive physical analysis of degraded quantum cascade lasers

Remarkable progress made in quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) has led them to find an increasing number of applications in remote sensing, chemical sensing, and free space communications, in addition to potential space applications. However, little has been reported on reliability and failure modes of QCLs although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing QCLs that meet lifetime requirements for space missions. Focused ion beam (FIB) techniques have been employed to investigate failure modes in various types of laser diodes. Our group has also used FIB to study failure modes in single-mode and multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers, but few groups have used this technique to investigate failure modes in QCLs. In our study, we report on destructive physical analysis (DPA) of degraded InGaAs-InAlAs QCLs using FIB and high-resolution TEM techniques. The active region of QCLs that we studied consisted of two-23 stage layers of InGaAs-InAlAs separated by a 0.5 μm thick InP spacer layer for 8.4μm QCLs and 30-stage layers of lattice-matched InGaAs-InAlAs heterostructure for 4.7μm QCLs. The MOVPE-grown laser structures were fabricated into deep-etched ridge waveguide QCLs. L-I-V-spectral characteristics were measured at RT under pulsed operation. Our 8.4μm QCLs with as-cleaved and HR-coated facets showed a laser threshold of 1.7 A and a threshold voltage of 13 V at RT, whereas our 4.7μm QCLs without facet coating showed threshold currents of 320 - 400 mA and threshold voltages of 13 - 13.5V. Failures were generated via short-term tests of QCLs. FIB systems were used to study the damage area on the front facet and also to prepare TEM cross sections at different locations along the waveguide for defect and chemical analyses using a HR-TEM. In contrast to the COMD damaged area showing as a blister on the front facet of QW lasers, the damaged area of QCLs was significantly extended into the InP substrate due to a much less absorption of lasing photons in QCLs. Our detailed destructive physical analysis results are reported including defect, structural, and chemical analysis results from degraded QCLs.

Root causes investigation of catastrophic optical bulk damage in high-power InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers

High-power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are critical components for both terrestrial and space satellite communications systems. Since these lasers predominantly fail by catastrophic and sudden degradation due to COD, it is especially crucial for space satellite applications to investigate reliability, failure modes, and degradation mechanisms of these lasers. Our group reported a new failure mode in MM and SM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers in 2009 and 2016, respectively. Our group also reported in 2017 that bulk failure due to catastrophic optical bulk damage (COBD) is the dominant failure mode of both SM and MM lasers that were subject to long-term life-tests. For the present study, we report root causes investigation of COBD by performing long-term lifetests followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) using various micro-analytical techniques including electron beam induced current (EBIC), time-resolved electroluminescence (EL), focused ion beam (FIB), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS). Our life-tests with accumulated test hours of over 25,000 hours for SM lasers and over 35,000 hours for MM lasers generated a number of COBD failures with various failure times. EBIC techniques were employed to study dark line defects (DLDs) generated in SM COBD failures stressed under different test conditions. FIB and high-resolution TEM were employed to prepare cross sectional and plan view TEM specimens to study DLD areas (dislocations) in post-aged SM lasers. Time-resolved EL techniques were employed to study initiation and progressions of dark spots and dark lines in real time as MM lasers were aged. Lastly, to investigate precursor signatures of failure and degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD in both SM and MM lasers, we employed DLTS techniques to study a role that electron traps (non-radiative recombination centers) play in degradation of these lasers. Our in-depth root causes investigation results are reported.

Catastrophic optical bulk degradation in high-power single- and multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers: Part II

High-power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are critical components for both terrestrial and space satellite communications systems. Since these lasers predominantly fail by catastrophic and sudden degradation due to catastrophic optical damage (COD), it is especially crucial for space satellite applications to investigate reliability, failure modes, precursor signatures of failure, and degradation mechanisms of these lasers. Our group reported a new failure mode in MM and SM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers in 2009 and 2016, respectively. Our group also reported in 2017 that bulk failure due to catastrophic optical bulk damage (COBD) is the dominant failure mode of both SM and MM lasers that were subject to long-term life-tests. For the present study, we continued our physics of failure investigation by performing long-term life-tests followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) using nondestructive and destructive micro-analytical techniques. We performed long-term accelerated life-tests on state-of-the-art SM and MM InGaAs- AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC mode. Our life-tests have accumulated over 25,000 test hours for SM lasers and over 35,000 test hours for MM lasers. We first employed electron beam induced current (EBIC) technique to identify failure modes of degraded SM lasers by observing dark line defects. All the SM failures that we studied showed catastrophic and sudden degradation and all of these failures were bulk failures. Since degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD are still not well understood, we also employed other techniques including focused ion beam (FIB) and high-resolution TEM to further study dark line defects and dislocations in post-aged lasers. Keywor

Catastrophic optical bulk degradation (COBD) in high-power single- and multi-mode InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well lasers

High-power single-mode (SM) and multi-mode (MM) InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well (QW) lasers are critical components for both telecommunications and space satellite communications systems. However, little has been reported on failure modes and degradation mechanisms of high-power SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing these lasers that meet lifetime requirements for space satellite systems, where extremely high reliability of these lasers is required. Our present study addresses the aforementioned issues by performing long-term life-tests followed by failure mode analysis (FMA) and physics of failure investigation. We performed long-term accelerated life-tests on state-of-the-art SM and MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers under ACC (automatic current control) mode. Our life-tests have accumulated over 25,000 test hours for SM lasers and over 35,000 test hours for MM lasers. FMA was performed on failed SM lasers using electron beam induced current (EBIC). This technique allowed us to identify failure types by observing dark line defects. All the SM failures we studied showed catastrophic and sudden degradation and all of these failures were bulk failures. Our group previously reported that bulk failure or COBD (catastrophic optical bulk damage) is the dominant failure mode of MM InGaAs-AlGaAs strained QW lasers. Since degradation mechanisms responsible for COBD are still not well understood, we also employed other techniques including focused ion beam (FIB) processing and high-resolution TEM to further study dark line defects and dislocations in post-aged lasers. Our long-term life-test results and FMA results are reported.

Electrical characteristics of high-power AlGaN-GaN high electron mobility transistors irradiated with protons and heavy ions

High electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) based on AlGaN-GaN hetero-structures are finding an increasing number of commercial and military applications that require high voltage, high power, and high efficiency operation. In recent years, leading GaN HEMT manufacturers have reported excellent RF power characteristics and encouraging reliability, but long-term reliability in the space environment still remains a major concern due to a large number of defects and traps present both in the bulk as well as at the surface, leading to undesirable characteristics including current collapse. Furthermore, degradation mechanisms in GaN HEMTs are still not well understood. Thus, reliability and radiation effects of GaN HEMTs should be studied before solid state power amplifiers (SSPAs) based on GaN HEMT technology are successfully deployed in space satellite systems. For the present study, we investigated electrical characteristics of high-power GaN HEMTs irradiated with protons and heavy ions under various irradiation and biasing conditions.

Failure mode analysis of degraded InGaAs-AlGaAs strained quantum well multi-mode vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers

Remarkable progress made in vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) emitting at 850 and 980 nm has led them to find an increasing number of applications in high speed data communications as well as in potential space satellite systems. However, little has been reported on reliability and failure modes of InGaAs VCSELs emitting at ~980 nm although it is crucial to understand failure modes and underlying degradation mechanisms in developing these VCSELs that exceed lifetime requirements for space missions. The active layer of commercial VCSELs that we studied consisted of two or three InGaAs quantum wells. The laser structures were fabricated into deep mesas followed by a steam oxidation process to form oxide-apertures for current and optical confinements. Our multi- mode VCSELs showed a laser threshold of ~ 0.5 mA at RT. Failures were generated via accelerated life-testing of VCSELs. For the present study, we report on failure mode analysis of degraded oxide-VCSELs using various techniques. We employed nondestructive techniques including electroluminescence (EL), optical beam induced current (OBIC), and electron beam induced current (EBIC) techniques as well as destructive techniques including focused ion beam (FIB) and high-resolution TEM techniques to study VCSELs that showed different degradation behaviors. Especially, we employed FIB systems to locally remove a portion of top-DBR mirrors of degraded VCSELs, which made it possible for our subsequent EBIC and OBIC techniques to locate damaged areas that were generated as a result of degradation processes and also for our HR-TEM technique to prepare TEM cross sections from damaged areas. Our nondestructive and destructive physical analysis results are reported including defect and structural analysis results from pre-aged VCSELs as well as from degraded VCSELs life-tested under different test conditions.