N. Bello González

SUNRISE: Instrument, Mission, Data, and First Results

The SUNRISE balloon-borne solar observatory consists of a 1 m aperture Gregory telescope, a UV filter imager, an imaging vector polarimeter, an image stabilization system, and further infrastructure. The first science flight of SUNRISE yielded high-quality data that revealed the structure, dynamics, and evolution of solar convection, oscillations, and magnetic fields at a resolution of around 100 km in the quiet Sun. After a brief description of instruments and data, the first qualitative results are presented. In contrast to earlier observations, we clearly see granulation at 214 nm. Images in Ca II H display narrow, short-lived dark intergranular lanes between the bright edges of granules. The very small-scale, mixed-polarity internetwork fields are found to be highly dynamic. A significant increase in detectable magnetic flux is found after phase-diversity-related reconstruction of polarization maps, indicating that the polarities are mixed right down to the spatial resolution limit and probably beyond.

The formation of a sunspot penumbra

Context. The formation of a penumbra is crucial for our understanding of solar magnetism, but it has not been observed in detail. Aims. We aim to enhance our knowledge of how a sunspot penumbra forms and how sunspots grow in size. Methods. We present a data set of the active region NOAA 11024 acquired at the German VTT with speckle-reconstructed images in the G-band and Ca ii K. The data set includes spectropolarimetric profiles from GFPI in Fe i 617.3 nm and TIP in Fe i 1089.6 nm. Results. On 2009 July 4, at 08:30 UT, a leading spot without penumbra and pores of opposite polarity were present in the active region. For the next 4:40 h, we observed the formation of a penumbra in the leading spot at a cadence of 5 images per second. We produced speckle reconstructed images of 0. 3 spatial resolution or better, interrupted by one large gap of 35 min and a few more small gaps of about 10 min. The leading spot initially has a size of 230 arcsec 2 with only a few penumbral filaments and then grows to a size of 360 arcsec 2 . The penumbra forms in segments, and it takes about 4 h until it encircles half of the umbra, on the side opposite the following polarity. On the side towards the following polarity, elongated granules mark a region of magnetic flux emergence. Conclusions. This ongoing emergence appears to prevent a steady penumbra from forming on this side. While the penumbra forms, the umbral area is constant; i.e., the increase in the total spot area is caused exclusively by the growth of the penumbra. From this we conclude that the umbra has reached an upper size limit and that any new magnetic flux that joins the spot is linked to the process of penumbral formation.

DETECTION OF VORTEX TUBES IN SOLAR GRANULATION FROM OBSERVATIONS WITH SUNRISE

We have investigated a time series of continuum intensity maps and corresponding Dopplergrams of granulation in a very quiet solar region at the disk center, recorded with the Imaging Magnetograph eXperiment (IMaX) on board the balloon-borne solar observatory SUNRISE. We find that granules frequently show substructure in the form of lanes composed of a leading bright rim and a trailing dark edge, which move together from the boundary of a granule into the granule itself. We find strikingly similar events in synthesized intensity maps from an ab initio numerical simulation of solar surface convection. From cross sections through the computational domain of the simulation, we conclude that these granular lanes are the visible signature of (horizontally oriented) vortex tubes. The characteristic optical appearance of vortex tubes at the solar surface is explained. We propose that the observed vortex tubes may represent only the large-scale end of a hierarchy of vortex tubes existing near the solar surface.

BRIGHT POINTS IN THE QUIET SUN AS OBSERVED IN THE VISIBLE AND NEAR-UV BY THE BALLOON-BORNE OBSERVATORY Sunrise

Bright points (BPs) are manifestations of small magnetic elements in the solar photosphere. Their brightness contrast not only gives insight into the thermal state of the photosphere (and chromosphere) in magnetic elements, but also plays an important role in modulating the solar total and spectral irradiance. Here, we report on simultaneous high-resolution imaging and spectropolarimetric observations of BPs using SUNRISE balloon-borne observatory data of the quiet Sun at the disk center. BP contrasts have been measured between 214 nm and 525 nm, including the first measurements at wavelengths below 388 nm. The histograms of the BP peak brightness show a clear trend toward broader contrast distributions and higher mean contrasts at shorter wavelengths. At 214 nm, we observe a peak brightness of up to five times the mean quiet-Sun value, the highest BP contrast so far observed. All BPs are associated with a magnetic signal, although in a number of cases it is surprisingly weak. Most of the BPs show only weak downflows, the mean value being 240 m s–1, but some display strong down- or upflows reaching a few km s–1.

Detection of large acoustic energy flux in the solar atmosphere

We study the energy flux carried by acoustic waves excited by convective motions at sub-photospheric levels. The analysis of high-resolution spectropolarimetric data taken with IMaX/SUNRISE provides a total energy flux of ~6400-7700 W m–2 at a height of ~250 km in the 5.2-10 mHz range, i.e., at least twice the largest energy flux found in previous works. Our estimate lies within a factor of two of the energy flux needed to balance radiative losses from the chromosphere according to the estimates of Anderson & Athay and revives interest in acoustic waves for transporting energy to the chromosphere. The acoustic flux is mainly found in the intergranular lanes but also in small rapidly evolving granules and at the bright borders, forming dark dots and lanes of splitting granules.

The GREGOR Fabry-Pérot Interferometer

The GREGOR Fabry-Perot Interferometer (GFPI) is one of three first-light instruments of the German 1.5-meter GREGOR solar telescope at the Observatorio del Teide, Tenerife, Spain. The GFPI uses two tunable etalons in collimated mounting. Thanks to its large-format, high-cadence CCD detectors with sophisticated computer hard- and software it is capable of scanning spectral lines with a cadence that is sufficient to capture the dynamic evolution of the solar atmosphere. The field-of-view (FOV) of 50″×38″is well suited for quiet Sun and sunspot observations. However, in the vector spectropolarimetric mode the FOV reduces to 25″×38″. The spectral coverage in the spectroscopic mode extends from 530–860 nm with a theoretical spectral resolution of R ≈250 000, whereas in the vector spectropolarimetric mode the wavelength range is at present limited to 580–660 nm. The combination of fast narrow-band imaging and post-factum image restoration has the potential for discovery science concerning the dynamic Sun and its magnetic field at spatial scales down to ∼50 km on the solar surface (© 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

The role of emerging bipoles in the formation of a sunspot penumbra

The generation of magnetic flux in the solar interior and its transport from the convection zone into the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona will be in the focus of solar physics research for the next decades. With 4 m class telescopes, one plans to measure essential processes of radiative magneto-hydrodynamics that are needed to understand the nature of solar magnetic fields. One key-ingredient to understand the behavior of solar magnetic field is the process of flux emergence into the solar photosphere, and how the magnetic flux reorganizes to form the magnetic phenomena of active regions like sunspots and pores. Here, we present a spectropolarimetric and imaging data set from a region of emerging magnetic flux, in which a proto-spot without penumbra forms a penumbra. During the formation of the penumbra the area and the magnetic flux of the spot increases. First results of our data analysis demonstrate that the additional magnetic flux, which contributes to the increasing area of the penumbra, is supplied by the region of emerging magnetic flux. We observe emerging bipoles that are aligned such that the spot polarity is closer to the spot. As an emerging bipole separates, the pole of the spot polarity migrates towards the spot, and finally merges with it. We speculate that this is a fundamental process, which makes the sunspot accumulate magnetic flux. As more and more flux is accumulated a penumbra forms and transforms the proto-spot into a full-fledged sunspot (© 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

On the structure and dynamics of Ellerman bombs - Detailed study of three events and modelling of Hα

Aims. We study the structure and dynamics of three Ellerman bombs (EBs) observed in an evolving active region. Methods. The active region NOAA 11271 was observed with the Vacuum Tower Telescope at Observatorio del Teide/Tenerife on August 18, 2011. We used the two-dimensional Triple Etalon SOlar Spectrometer (TESOS) to obtain time sequences of the active region and of EBs in Hα at a cadence of 15 s. Simultaneously, we obtained full Stokes profiles with the Tenerife Infrared Polarimeter (TIP II) in the two magnetically sensitive Fe i infrared lines (IR) at 1.56 μ, scanning spatial sections of the area with cadences of 28−46 s. The Hα data were reconstructed with speckle methods to study the evolution of the atmospheric stratification. Two methods were used to extract magnetic field information from the IR Stokes profiles: 1) fitting of the (Q,U,V) profiles by Gaussians; and 2) applying the Milne-Eddington approximation, assuming two separate magnetic structures in the resolution element and fitting by trial and error some profiles from the EB areas. Data from SDO-HMI and -AIA were also used. We performed two-dimensional (2D) non-LTE radiative transfer calculations of Hα in parameterised models of EBs. Results. The three EBs studied in detail occurred in a complex active region near sunspots. They were very bright with a factor of 1.5–2.8 brighter than the nearby area. They lived for 1/2 h and longer. They were related to broadband faculae, but the latter were not the brightest features in the field of view. The EBs occurred in magnetic field configurations with opposite polarity close together. One EB was located at the outskirts of a penumbra of a complex sunspot and showed repeated “flaring” in SDO-AIA data. Another was close to a strong field patch and moved into this during the end of its lifetime. The third EB showed clear changes of field structure during the time it was observed. We obtained from the 2D modelling that heating and increase in Hα opacity are likely to occur at heights of 300–800 km. Line shifts and asymmetries can well be reproduced by velocities at these heights and also at much larger heights. Conclusions. The three EBs occurred at sites with magnetic fields of opposite polarity, which were likely the cause of the Hα brightening upon reconnection.

Acoustic waves in the solar atmosphere at high spatial resolution - II. Measurement in the Fe i 5434 Å line

Aims. We investigate the energy supply of the solar chromosphere by acoustic waves. Methods. A time sequence with high spatial and temporal resolution from the quiet Sun disc centre in Fe i 5434 A (Lande factor g = 0) is analysed. We used models from a numerical simulation of granular convection and apply NLTE spectral line transfer to determine the height of formation. For estimates of acoustic energy flux, we adopted wave propagation with inclinations of the wave vector with respect to the vertical of 0 ◦ ,3 0 ◦ , and 45 ◦ . For a granular and an intergranular model, the transmissions of the atmosphere to highfrequency waves were determined for the three inclination angles. Wavelet and Fourier analyses were performed and the resulting power spectra were corrected for atmospheric transmission. Results. We find waves with periods down to ∼40 s. They occur intermittently in space and time. The velocity signal is formed at a height of 500 km in the granular model and at 620 km in the intergranule. At periods shorter than the acoustic cutoff (∼190 s), ∼40% of the waves occur above granules and ∼60% above intergranules. By adopting vertical propagation, we estimate total fluxes above granules of 2750–3360 W m −2 , and of 910–1 000 W m −2 above intergranules. The weighted average is 1730–2 060 W m −2 .T he estimates of the total fluxes increase by 15% when inclined wave propagation of 45 ◦ is assumed.

Signatures of running penumbral waves in sunspot photospheres

The highly dynamic atmosphere above sunspots exhibits a wealth of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves. Recent studies suggest a coupled nature of the most prominent phenomena: umbral flashes (UFs) and running penumbral waves (RPWs). From an observational point of view, we perform a height-dependent study of RPWs, compare their wave characteristics and aim to track down these so far only chromospherically observed phenomena to photospheric layers to prove the upward propagating field-guided nature of RPWs. We analyze a time series (58\,min) of multi-wavelength observations of an isolated circular sunspot (NOAA11823) taken at high spatial and temporal resolution in spectroscopic mode with the Interferometric BIdimensional Spectro-polarimeter (IBIS/DST). By means of a multi-layer intensity sampling, velocity comparisons, wavelet power analysis and sectorial studies of time-slices, we retrieve the power distribution, characteristic periodicities and propagation characteristics of sunspot waves at photospheric and chromospheric levels. Signatures of RPWs are found at photospheric layers. Those continuous oscillations occur preferably at periods between 4-6\,min starting at the inner penumbral boundary. The photospheric oscillations all have a slightly delayed, more defined chromospheric counterpart with larger relative velocities (which are linked to preceding UF events). In all layers the power of RPWs follows a filamentary fine-structure and shows a typical ring-shaped power distribution increasing in radius for larger wave periods. The analysis of time-slices reveals apparent horizontal velocities for RPWs at photospheric layers of