Neil J. V. Weston

Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer

Despite the widespread use of the term “mental toughness” by performers, coaches and sport psychology consultant’s alike, it is only recently that researchers (e.g., Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002) have attempted to provide some conceptual clarity to reduce the confusion surrounding the understanding and operationalization of the concept. As reported by Jones et al. (2002), mental toughness has been construed to represent a variety of positive responses to situations which have included the ability to persist and refuse to give in (Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987), overcome setbacks and poor performances (Goldberg, 1998), cope with excessive pressure (Goldberg, 1998) and to not let adverse situations affect performance (Gould et al., 1987). In reviewing the literature, Jones et al. (2002) suggested mentally tough performers to hold several key attributes, which enable them to experience positive psychological states. Examples of these include commitment and determination (Bull, Albinson, & Shambrook, 1996), motivation and control (Gould et al., 1987), excellent concentration and focusing abilities (Goldberg, 1998) and, confidence and self-belief (Goldberg, 1998).

Using Psychological Skills Training to Develop Soccer Performance

The present study examined the effects of a soccer, midfielder-specific psychological skills intervention comprising relaxation, imagery and self-talk on position-specific performance measures. Using a multiple-baseline-across-individuals design, five participants had three per-formance subcomponents assessed across nine competitive matches. The results of the study indicated the position-specific intervention to enable at least small improvements on the three dependent variables for each participant. Social validation data indicated all participants to perceive the intervention as being successful and appropriate to their needs. The findings provide further evidence to suggest the efficacy of sport, and position-specific interventions. Suggestions for future research are provided.

Stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective

Abstract We examined the varying performance and organizational stressors experienced by coaches who operate with elite athletes. Following interviews with eleven coaches, content analysis of the data revealed coaches to experience comparable numbers of performance and organizational stressors. Performance stressors were divided between their own performance and that of their athletes, while organizational stressors included environmental, leadership, personal, and team factors. The findings provide evidence that coaches experience a variety of stressors that adds weight to the argument that they should be labelled as “performers” in their own right. A variety of future research topics and applied issues are also discussed.

Examining relationships between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy

Abstract The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Ninety‐nine coaches completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Coaching Efficacy Scale with the results of the canonical correlation suggesting significant relationships between the two sets of variables. Regression analyses suggested motivation efficacy to be significantly associated with the regulation of emotions and social skills, whereas character‐building efficacy was associated with optimism. Teaching technique efficacy was significantly associated with appraisal of own emotions with no significant predictors for game strategy efficacy. When viewed collectively, results provide an insight to how emotional intelligence relates to coaching efficacy and gives an indication to where applied work with coaches may be directed. Future research suggestions are also provided in reference to coach‐related psychology.

Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts

Abstract The present study examined how elite female gymnasts developed their mental toughness. Following semistructured interviews with 10 elite performers, inductive content analysis revealed four general dimensions that contributed to the development of their mental toughness. These included the sport process, sporting personnel, nonsporting personnel, and environmental influences. Although many of the findings reflect those from previous research but within a specific sport, a unique and unexpected finding related to the cultural differences experienced by the athletes throughout their development. The findings provide further details of how mental toughness could be developed in addition to future research and applied issues being discussed

Stress and coping in single-handed round-the-world ocean sailing

The present study sought to examine the various stressors faced, and associated coping strategies employed, by five single-handed sailors entered into the 2006/2007 Velux 5 Oceans round-the-world race. Interviews conducted with the skippers were transcribed and then deductively and inductively content analyzed. Skippers revealed organizational (e.g., environmental conditions, isolation, sleep deprivation), competitive (e.g., lack of progress, yacht-related problems), and personal (e.g., family-related issues) stressors. Strategies used to deal with these demands included problem- (e.g., prioritized sequential thinking), appraisal- (e.g., rationalizing situations), emotion- (e.g., using available communications), and approach-focused coping (e.g., “what if” scenario planning). The present study proposes that future research should examine more closely the stressor-coping strategy relationship to guide the development of successful coping interventions.

Coping with stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective

Abstract The aim of the present study was to supplement previous work that identified the stressors experienced by coaches and examine the coping strategies that elite-level coaches employ to overcome stressors. Three elite coaches were interviewed and were required to identify three prominent stressors that they had experienced before discussing how they attempted to cope with them. The selected stressors included both performance and organizational types, and the associated coping attempts included strategies conforming to problem-, emotion-, avoidance-, appraisal-, and approach-focused dimensions. While specific forms of coping were identified, findings also highlighted that coping strategies were employed across performance and organizational stressors, rather than being employed for one or the other. Implications for future research opportunities within the area are presented.

Influence of repeated daily menthol exposure on human temperature regulation and perception

A single exposure to menthol can, depending on concentration, enhance both cool sensations and encourage body heat storage. This study tested whether there is an habituation in either response after repeated-daily exposures. Twenty-two participants were assigned to one of three spray groups: Control (CON; n=6), 0.05% L-menthol (M(0.05%); n=8), and 0.2% L-menthol (M(0.2%); n=8). On Monday (20°C, 50% rh) participants were sprayed with 100 mL of solution and undertook 40 min of cycling at 45% of their peak power (Ex1), from Tuesday to Thursday (30°C, 50% rh) they were sprayed twice daily whilst resting (R1 to R6), Friday was a repeat of Monday (Ex2). Thermal sensation (TS), thermal comfort, perceived exertion, irritation, rectal and skin temperature (Tsk), skin blood flow (SkBF) and sweat rate were monitored. A two-way ANOVA (alpha=0.05) compared responses from the beginning (Ex1, R1) and end (Ex2, R5) of the testing week. M(0.2%) induced significantly (P<0.05) cooler TS at the beginning of the week (Ex1, R1) compared to the end (Ex2, R5), indicating habituation of TS; this was not observed in M(0.05%). No other perceptual or physiological responses habituated. 0.2% Menthol caused a heat storage response, mediated by vasoconstriction, at the beginning and end of the week, suggesting the habituation of TS occurred in a pathway specific to sensation. In summary, the cooling influence of 0.2% menthol habituates after repeated-daily exposures, but with no habituation in heat storage.

Athlete perceptions of the impacts of performance profiling

The present research examined athlete perceptions of the usefulness and impacts of producing individual performance profiles within a group setting. In study 1, eight randomly chosen rugby union players who had participated in a performance profiling session were interviewed to gain their perceptions of the strategy. The interview content analysis findings were then combined with a review of the profiling literature to produce a closed questionnaire for study 2. In this study, 10 sport teams each participated in a single performance profiling session. At the end of their session, athletes (n = 191) completed the questionnaire to determine their perceptions of performance profiling. Athletes believed profiling could be useful in: (1) raising their self-awareness; (2) helping them decide what they need to work on; (3) motivating them to improve; (4) setting goals for themselves; (5) monitoring and evaluating their performance; and (6) taking more responsibility for their development.

The influence of game location and level of experience on psychological skill usage.

Abstract The study investigated the variation in psychological skills usage between game location and performers’ experience levels. A total of 25 collegiate soccer players retrospectively completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) that examines activation, relaxation, imagery, goal setting, self‐talk, automaticity, emotional control, and negative thinking, following eight competitive games (four home and four away). Participants were grouped into Experienced and Less Experienced groups, based on the level of performance at which they typically played. Repeated measures Multivariate Analyses of Variance compared the usage of psychological skills across game location and experience levels and follow‐up univariate analyses suggested psychological skills to be employed more frequently at home compared to away, and for experienced individuals to use such skills more than less experienced performers. Explanations as to how the findings relate to Carron and Courneyas (1992) conceptual model of home advantage, future research suggestions and potential implications for the applied practitioner are discussed