R. A. Leske

INTERACTING CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS AND SOLAR ENERGETIC PARTICLES

We studied the association between solar energetic particle (SEP) events and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and found that CME interaction is an important aspect of SEP production. Each SEP event was associated with a primary CME that is faster and wider than average CMEs and originated from west of E45°. For most of the SEP events, the primary CME overtakes one or more slower CMEs within a heliocentric distance of ∼20 R⊙. In an inverse study, we found that for all the fast (speed greater than 900 km s^(-1)) and wide (width greater than 60°) western hemispheric frontside CMEs during the study period, the SEP-associated CMEs were ∼4 times more likely to be preceded by CME interaction than the SEP-poor CMEs; i.e., CME interaction is a good discriminator between SEP-poor and SEP-associated CMEs. We infer that the efficiency of the CME-driven shocks is enhanced as they propagate through the preceding CMEs and that they accelerate SEPs from the material of the preceding CMEs rather than from the quiet solar wind. We also found a high degree of association between major SEP events and interplanetary type II radio bursts, suggesting that proton accelerators are also good electron accelerators.

Proton, helium, and electron spectra during the large solar particle events of October-November 2003

The extraordinary period from late October through early November 2003 was marked by more than 40 coronal mass ejections (CME), eight X-class flares, and five large solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Using data from instruments on the ACE, SAMPEX, and GOES-11 spacecraft, the fluences of H, He, O, and electrons have been measured in these five events over the energy interval from ∼0.1 to >100 MeV/nucleon for the ions and ∼0.04 to 8 MeV for electrons. The H, He, and O spectra are found to resemble double power laws, with a break in the spectral index between ∼5 and ∼50 MeV/nucleon which appears to depend on the charge-to-mass ratio of the species. Possible interpretations of the relative location of the H and He breaks are discussed. The electron spectra can also be characterized by double power laws, but incomplete energy coverage prevents an exact determination of where and how the spectra steepen. The proton and electron fluences in the 28 October 2003 SEP event are comparable to the largest observed during the previous solar maximum, and within a factor of 2 or 3 of the largest SEP events observed during the last 50 years. The 2-week period covered by these observations accounted for ∼20% of the high-energy solar-particle fluence over the years from 1997 to 2003. By integrating over the energy spectra, the total energy content of energetic protons, He, and electrons in the interplanetary medium can be estimated. After correcting for the location of the events, it is found that the kinetic energy in energetic particles amounts to a significant fraction of the estimated CME kinetic energy, implying that shock acceleration must be relatively efficient in these events.

RECORD-SETTING COSMIC-RAY INTENSITIES IN 2009 AND 2010

We report measurements of record-setting intensities of cosmic-ray nuclei from C to Fe, made with the Cosmic Ray Isotope Spectrometer carried on the Advanced Composition Explorer in orbit about the inner Sun-Earth Lagrangian point. In the energy interval from ~70 to ~450 MeV nucleon^(–1), near the peak in the near-Earth cosmic-ray spectrum, the measured intensities of major species from C to Fe were each 20%-26% greater in late 2009 than in the 1997-1998 minimum and previous solar minima of the space age (1957-1997). The elevated intensities reported here and also at neutron monitor energies were undoubtedly due to several unusual aspects of the solar cycle 23/24 minimum, including record-low interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) intensities, an extended period of reduced IMF turbulence, reduced solar-wind dynamic pressure, and extremely low solar activity during an extended solar minimum. The estimated parallel diffusion coefficient for cosmic-ray transport based on measured solar-wind properties was 44% greater in 2009 than in the 1997-1998 solar-minimum period. In addition, the weaker IMF should result in higher cosmic-ray drift velocities. Cosmic-ray intensity variations at 1 AU are found to lag IMF variations by 2-3 solar rotations, indicating that significant solar modulation occurs inside ~20 AU, consistent with earlier galactic cosmic-ray radial-gradient measurements. In 2010, the intensities suddenly decreased to 1997 levels following increases in solar activity and in the inclination of the heliospheric current sheet. We describe the conditions that gave cosmic rays greater access to the inner solar system and discuss some of their implications.

THE VERY UNUSUAL INTERPLANETARY CORONAL MASS EJECTION OF 2012 JULY 23: A BLAST WAVE MEDIATED BY SOLAR ENERGETIC PARTICLES

The giant, superfast, interplanetary coronal mass ejection, detected by STEREO A on 2012 July 23, well away from Earth, appears to have reached 1 AU with an unusual set of leading bow waves resembling in some ways a subsonic interaction, possibly due to the high pressures present in the very energetic particles produced in this event. Eventually, a front of record high-speed flow reached STEREO. The unusual behavior of this event is illustrated using the magnetic field, plasma, and energetic ion observations obtained by STEREO. Had the Earth been at the location of STEREO, the large southward-oriented magnetic field component in the event, combined with its high speed, would have produced a record storm.

Observations of geomagnetic cutoff variations during solar energetic particle events and implications for the radiation environment at the Space Station

Data from the polar-orbiting Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX) satellite have been used to measure the location of the geomagnetic cutoff for low-energy protons and alpha particles during several large solar energetic particle events from mid-1992 to late 1998. When fluxes are sufficiently high, the cutoff latitude can be measured up to four times per orbit, allowing the variability of the cutoff to be observed on relatively short timescales. We find significant changes in the cutoff location, often by more than 5° in less than 1 day, and these changes are well correlated with geomagnetic activity as measured by either Dst or Kp. Spacecraft in intermediate-inclination orbits such as the International Space Station (ISS) graze the geomagnetic polar cap at certain longitudes each day. Calculations show that a 5° suppression in the average geomagnetic cutoff increases by more than a factor of 2.5 the time that the ISS spends in the polar cap exposed to energetic particles. Since the Station is only vulnerable at certain longitudes, however, real-time monitoring of the cutoff location from a polar-orbiting spacecraft could be used to provide advance notice of the polar cap location and conditions, sometimes hours before the Space Station itself reaches high magnetic latitudes.

MEASUREMENT OF THE SECONDARY RADIONUCLIDES 10Be, 26Al, 36Cl, 54Mn, AND 14C AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE GALACTIC COSMIC-RAY AGE

We report on abundance measurements of ^(10)Be, ^(26)Al, ^(36)Cl, and ^(54)Mn in the Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) using the Cosmic-Ray Isotope Spectrometer (CRIS) instrument aboard the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft at energies from ~70 to ~400 MeV nucleon^(-1). We also report an upper limit on the abundance of GCR ^(14)C. The high statistical significance of these measurements allows the energy dependence of their relative abundances to be studied. A steady-state, leaky-box propagation model, incorporating observations of the local interstellar medium (ISM) composition and density and recent partial fragmentation cross section measurements, is used to interpret these abundances. Using this model, the individual galactic confinement times derived using data for each species are consistent with a unique confinement time value of τ_(esc) = 15.0 ± 1.6 Myr. The CRIS abundance measurements are consistent with propagation through an average ISM hydrogen number density n_H = 0.34 ± 0.04 H atoms cm^(-3). The surviving fractions, f, for each radioactive species have been calculated. From predictions of the diffusion models of Ptuskin & Soutoul, the values of f indicate an interstellar cosmic-ray diffusion coefficient of D = (3.5 ± 2.0) × 10^(28) cm^2 s^(-1).

Spectral Properties of He and Heavy Ions in 3He-rich Solar Flares

Using advanced instrumentation on the ACE spacecraft, we have conducted a survey of solar energetic particle spectra in ^3He-rich events over a broad energy range ~80 keV nucleon^(-1) to 15 MeV nucleon^(-1) during the period 1997 September-2001 March. The spectra of ^4He and heavy ions (C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ca, Fe) were generally similar over this range but often hardened below ~1 MeV nucleon^(-1). In most of the events there was even stronger hardening of the ^3He spectrum below ~1 MeV nucleon^(-1), leading to an energy-dependent ^3He : ^4He ratio. These observations point to unique and distinct properties of ^3He in these events and place new constraints on models that seek to explain enhancements of ^3He and heavy ions using the same mechanisms. In addition to the events with spectra in the form of power laws or double power laws, there is a second class of event in which the low-energy ^3He and Fe spectra are rounded, while the ^4He remains a power law. In these cases ^3He and Fe spectra can be fitted at low energies by a stochastic acceleration model, but this model does not explain the higher energy portions of these spectra, nor the power-law spectral forms of the ^4He. These observations appear to require an additional mechanism, such as acceleration by cascading MHD turbulence. The ^3He enrichment pattern that we observe suggests that all these different spectral features might be due to processes with a common origin but then followed by different acceleration histories.

Charge states of solar energetic particles using the geomagnetic cutoff technique: SAMPEX measurements in the 6 November 1997 solar particle event

We report on the ionization states of ∼0.5–50 MeV/nucleon ions in the 6 November 1997 solar particle event using instrumentation on the SAMPEX satellite and the geomagnetic cutoff technique. Using the geomagnetic cutoffs of ∼10 MeV 4He and ∼20 MeV protons, we infer the ionization states of ∼0.5–50 MeV/nucleon C-Fe by measuring their latitude distributions. The geomagnetic cutoff method extends the measurement of ionization states beyond 10 MeV/nucleon, where charge state information is inaccessible with present electrostatic deflection techniques. In contrast to an increase of the Fe charge state observed above ∼20 MeV/nucleon in events in late 1992, we find in the 6 November 1997 event that Si & Fe charge states increased dramatically across 0.5–50 MeV/nucleon. While the origin of this newly discovered energy dependence is unknown, such significant event to event variations of solar particle charge states should be considered in models of acceleration and transport processes.

The Ionic Charge of Solar Energetic Particles with Energies of 0.3-70 MeV per Nucleon

With the three particle sensors Low Energy Ion Composition Analyzer (LICA), Heavy Ion Large Area Proportional Counter Telescope (HILT), and Mass Spectrometer Telescope (MAST) on board the polar orbiting Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX) satellite, the ionic charge of solar energetic particles (SEP) was measured over a wide energy range from 0.3 to 70 MeV per nucleon. For each sensor, the evaluation was performed separately. The results obtained with LICA (0.3-10 MeV per nucleon) and MAST (15-70 MeV per nucleon) were published earlier by Mason et al. and Leske et al., respectively. In this work we present the results of the HILT sensor (7-50 MeV per nucleon) and discuss the combined results of the three instruments. With HILT, the mean ionic charge of SEP was measured for carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, argon, calcium, and iron in the energy range 7E50 MeV per nucleon during two consecutive large SEP events in 1992 OctoberENovember. The mean ionic charge was inferred from the rigidity-dependent geomagnetic flux cutoff. The coronal temperatures deduced from the mean ionic charges are well in accordance with the value of ~2x10^6 K except for neon and magnesium, as previously reported. The data measured with the three sensors, LICA, HILT, and MAST, agree well and are in accordance with data previously measured at energies below 3 MeV per nucleon (Luhn et al.), except for iron, where we observed a significant energy dependence of the mean charge over the energy range 0.3-70 MeV per nucleon.

New observations of heavy-ion-rich solar particle events from ACE

Following launch of the Advanced Composition Explorer in August 1997, the Solar Isotope Spectrometer measured the composition of nine solar energetic particle events. We have used isotopic measurements of Ne to determine the degree of charge-to-mass-dependent fractionation and infer the charge states of C-Ni in the four most heavy-ion-rich of the nine events. The results indicate a source temperature of ∼4×10^6 K; this and the measured abundances suggest that these four events are more characteristic of impulsive events than gradual. Although the ^3He/^4He ratios are not enhanced to the level commonly ascribed to impulsive events, there are sizable enhancements over typical solar wind values measured in three of the events.