Rosemery O. Nelson

Theoretical Explanations for Reactivity in Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring is the procedure by which individuals record the occurrences of their own target behaviors. In addition to providing a source of data, self-monitoring is also used as a therapeutic strategy because it often causes reactive behavior changes in response frequency. Three alternative viewpoints to account for this reactivity are presented. Kanfers position (1970a, 1970b, 1975, 1977) is that the self-monitoring response leads to self-evaluation and self-administered consequences that alter response frequency. Rachlin (1974) holds that the self-monitoring response cues the ultimate environmental consequences that control behavior rate. In an extension of Rachlins view, Hayes and Nelson (1977) propose that the entire self-monitoring process (therapist instructions, training, self-recording device, self-monitoring responses) prompts the external consequences that control behavior frequency. This extension provides theoretical parsimony in positing environmental antecedents as well as consequences for reactivity. The extension also best accounts for data in which reactivity is not linked to the occurrence of the self-monitoring responses (i.e., reactivity occurs despite inaccurate self-monitoring, low frequency behaviors, and unused self-monitoring devices). Similarly, this view accounts for the parallel effects produced when monitoring is done by external agents.

Importance of treating individually assessed response classes in the amelioration of depression

This study compared the effectiveness in ameliorating depression of treatments that were directly related to or unrelated to initial assessment findings. Nine depressed women served as subjects, three with problems in social skills, three with problems with irrational cognitions, and three with both types of problems. All subjects received four sessions of social skills training and four sessions of cognitive therapy in an alternating treatments design, combined with a multiple baseline design. Depressed subjects with assessed problems in social skills significantly improved more in both social skills and depression after receiving the related treatment of social skills training as compared to the unrelated treatment of cognitive therapy. Depressed subjects with assessed problems in irrational cognitions significantly improved more in both cognitions and depression after receiving the related treatment of cognitive therapy as compared to the unrelated treatment of social skills training. Depressed subjects with problems in both cognitions and social skills showed equivalent improvements in depression with the two types of treatment; but social skills training produced greater improvement in their social skills, and cognitive therapy produced a larger decrement in their irrational cognitions. Thus, treatment effectiveness was greatly enhanced, depending on whether treatment was related or unrelated to the initial assessment findings.

Problems in the use of naturalistic observation as a means of behavioral assessment

This paper summarizes some of the methodological problems associated with naturalistic observation of behavior, a system of data collection frequently used in behavior therapy: assets and deficits in arbitrary analysis of continuous behavior, determination of stability of behavior in relation to cessation of data collection, and calculations of reliability of observations. Studies are reviewed which indicate additional problems related to naturalistic observation: the reactive nature of the observation process and potential observer bias. Since it is probable that data presented by researchers using behavioral observations are influenced by these variables, further investigations of these problems are encouraged to ensure generalizability of results from studies utilizing this method of data collection.

The effects of self-recorders' training and the obtrusiveness of the self-recording device on the accuracy and reactivity of self-monitoring

To evaluate the effects of training in self-recording, four adolescent retarded subjects received intensive training in self-monitoring while five comparable subjects received minimal training. To evaluate the effects of the obtrusiveness of the self-recording device, all nine subjects self-recorded appropriate classroom verbalizations sometimes with a hand-held counter and sometimes with a belt-worn counter. Self-monitoring was reactive, producing increases in appropriate verbalizations. Training increased the accuracy but not the reactivity of self-monitoring. The hand-held counter tended to produce more accurate self-recordings and higher frequencies of appropriate verbalizations, although these latter findings were not statistically significant. These results are useful in enhancing both the assessment and therapeutic functions of self-monitoring.

Mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy of depression

This study examined the mechanisms which contribute to the efficacy of Becks cognitive therapy for depression and identified some of the depressive responses influenced by this treatment. Cognitive therapy was administered in a small group format semiweekly for 6 weeks to 37 community volunteers with moderate to severe major depressive disorder. Cognitive therapy was divided into three components: self-monitoring (SM), logical analysis (LA), and hypothesis testing (HT). Generally, exposure to LA, to HT, or to all components was associated with self-reports of fewer depressive symptoms and dysfunctional thoughts, more pleasant events, and better interpersonal relationship than occurred before treatment. There were no significant differences between LA and HT on any variable. Exposure to all components or to more treatment was associated with significantly fewer depressive symptoms (BDI) and dysfunctional thoughts (ATQ-F) than was exposure to only LA or to only HT. However, according to the MMPI-D, ATQ-B, PES and IES, exposure to the combination equalled exposure to only LA or HT. Pretreatment levels of negative automatic thoughts did not predict response to cognitive therapy, while pretreatment BDI scores accounted for 16% of the variance in posttreatment BDI scores.

Relationships between assessment and treatment within a behavioral perspective

Three alternative strategies to link assessment and treatment within a behavioral perspective are described. First is the functional analysis in which the maintaining variables of the target behavior are identified in assessment and modified in treatment. Although this strategy appears to be frequently successful based on positive treatment outcome, critical tests are seldom done: hypothesized functional analyses are not tested prior to intervention; nor is treatment outcome based on one functional analysis pitted against treatment outcome based on an alternative functional analysis. The second strategy is the keystone target behavior strategy. From among multiple possible target behaviors, one is selected for intervention that produces therapeutic response covariation. The third strategy is the diagnostic strategy. A treatment is selected for a particular client based on its overall success in treating a particular disorder. Empirical comparisons are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of these different strategies, linking assessment and treatment for different disorders.

The relative contributions of reattribution and verbal extinction to the effectiveness of cognitive restructuring

The two purposes of this study were (1) to analyze differentially the verbal extinctionand reattribution elements of a cognitive therapy, Cognitive Restructuring (CR); and (2) to analyze these differential effects on measures of fear behavior from three response modes (verbal, motoric, somatic). In addition to a no treatment control (NC), four forms of group treatment were used with snake phobic college students (n=8 per group): CR; Verbal Extinction (VE); Systematic Desensitization (SD) as a standard technique control; and an Attentio-Placebo control (AP). Although verbal extinction had a facilitative effect in reducing subjective fear, the element of re-attribution contributed significantly beyond verbal extinction to the efficacy of CR in reducing behavioral avoidance and, to a lesser extent, subjective fear. CR and SD produced equal and marked improvement in reducing behavioral avoidance, but CR and VE were the only treatments to have a therapeutic effect on subjective fear. None of the treatment procedures produced a significant improvement on the somatic measure.

Direct and collateral changes in on-task and academic behavior resulting from on-task versus academic contingencies *

The relative efficacy of on-task and academic classroom contingencies was compared on the dependent measures of on-task behavior and rate and accuracy of academic performance. Five male elementary shcool students experienced baseline I, the on-task contingency, baseline II, and the academic contingency. Five other male elementary school student experienced baseline I, the academic contingency, baseline II, and the on-task contingency. The academic contingency was the more parsimonious intervention strategy, producing increments in both on-task behaviors and academic achievement. The on-task contingency increased on-task behaviors without concomitant academic improvements.

Training Teachers as Mediators: Efficacy of a Workshop Versus the Bug-In-The-Ear Technique.

Abstract The implementation of behavior modification techniques in school settings often relies on effective training of teachers as mediators. At the conclusion of Phase I, the performance of an experimental group of 13 teachers who were taught behavior modification by means of an inservice workshop was compared with a no-treatment control group. Although the experimental group scored higher on a paper-and-pencil test of behavior modification, there were no differences between the two groups on selected observed in-class behaviors. During Phase II, half of the experimental group of teachers received two hours of bug-in-the-ear (BIE) training in their own classrooms. BIE resulted in changes in the classroom behaviors of praise and contingency statements. These results are discussed in terms of the situation and response mode specificity of behavior and in terms of the implications for future workshops and research.

The relative reactivity of external observations and self-monitoring†

To compare the relative reactivity of self-monitoring and external-monitoring, trained observers (from behind a one-way mirror) recorded the face-touching frequency of 14 college students in a classroom situation through five experimental conditions: baseline, observer-present, observer-absent, self-recording, and return-to-baseline. Although external-monitoring reduced face-touching frequency, self-monitoring was more reactive and produced more consistent reactivity across subjects. These results were discussed in terms of possible mechanisms explaining the reactivity of self-monitoring and possible variables affecting the reactivity of external observations.