Christian E. Overgaard

Claudins: control of barrier function and regulation in response to oxidant stress.

Claudins are a family of nearly two dozen transmembrane proteins that are a key part of the tight junction barrier that regulates solute movement across polarized epithelia. Claudin family members interact with each other, as well as with other transmembrane tight junction proteins (such as occludin) and cytosolic scaffolding proteins (such as zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1)). Although the interplay between all of these different classes of proteins is critical for tight junction formation and function, claudin family proteins are directly responsible for forming the equivalent of paracellular ion selective channels (or pores) with specific permeability and thus are essential for barrier function. In this review, we summarize current progress in identifying structural elements of claudins that regulate their transport, assembly, and function. The effects of oxidant stress on claudins are also examined, with particular emphasis on lung epithelial barrier function and oxidant stress induced by chronic alcohol abuse.

Differential effects of claudin-3 and claudin-4 on alveolar epithelial barrier function

Alveolar barrier function depends critically on the claudin family tight junction proteins. Of the major claudins expressed by alveolar epithelial cells, claudin (Cldn)-3 and Cldn-4 are the most closely related by amino acid homology, yet they differ dramatically in the pattern of expression. Previously published reports have shown that Cldn-3 is predominantly expressed by type II alveolar epithelial cells; Cldn-4 is expressed throughout the alveolar epithelium and is specifically upregulated in response to acute lung injury. Using primary rat alveolar epithelial cells transduced with yellow fluorescent protein-tagged claudin constructs, we have identified roles for Cldn-3 and Cldn-4 in alveolar epithelial barrier function. Surprisingly, increasing expression of Cldn-3 decreased alveolar epithelial barrier function, as assessed by transepithelial resistance and dye flux measurements. Conversely, increasing Cldn-4 expression improved alveolar epithelial transepithelial resistance compared with control cells. Other alveolar epithelial tight junction proteins were largely unaffected by increased expression of Cldn-3 and Cldn-4. Taken together, these results demonstrate that, in the context of the alveolar epithelium, Cldn-3 and Cldn-4 have different effects on paracellular permeability, despite significant homology in their extracellular loop domains.

Chronic Alcohol Ingestion Increases Mortality and Organ Injury in a Murine Model of Septic Peritonitis

Background Patients admitted to the intensive care unit with alcohol use disorders have increased morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study was to determine how chronic alcohol ingestion alters the host response to sepsis in mice. Methods Mice were randomized to receive either alcohol or water for 12 weeks and then subjected to cecal ligation and puncture. Mice were sacrificed 24 hours post-operatively or followed seven days for survival. Results Septic alcohol-fed mice had a significantly higher mortality than septic water-fed mice (74% vs. 41%, p = 0.01). This was associated with worsened gut integrity in alcohol-fed mice with elevated intestinal epithelial apoptosis, decreased crypt proliferation and shortened villus length. Further, alcohol-fed mice had higher intestinal permeability with decreased ZO-1 and occludin protein expression in the intestinal tight junction. The frequency of splenic and bone marrow CD4+ T cells was similar between groups; however, splenic CD4+ T cells in septic alcohol-fed mice had a marked increase in both TNF and IFN-γ production following ex vivo stimulation. Neither the frequency nor function of CD8+ T cells differed between alcohol-fed and water-fed septic mice. NK cells were decreased in both the spleen and bone marrow of alcohol-fed septic mice. Pulmonary myeloperoxidase levels and BAL levels of G-CSF and TFG-β were higher in alcohol-fed mice. Pancreatic metabolomics demonstrated increased acetate, adenosine, xanthine, acetoacetate, 3-hydroxybutyrate and betaine in alcohol-fed mice and decreased cytidine, uracil, fumarate, creatine phosphate, creatine, and choline. Serum and peritoneal cytokines were generally similar between alcohol-fed and water-fed mice, and there were no differences in bacteremia, lung wet to dry weight, or pulmonary, liver or splenic histology. Conclusions When subjected to the same septic insult, mice with chronic alcohol ingestion have increased mortality. Alterations in intestinal integrity, the host immune response, and pancreatic metabolomics may help explain this differential response.

Roles for claudins in alveolar epithelial barrier function

Terminal airspaces of the lung, alveoli, are sites of gas exchange that are sensitive to disrupted fluid balance. The alveolar epithelium is a heterogeneous monolayer of cells interconnected by tight junctions at sites of cell–cell contact. Paracellular permeability depends on claudin (cldn)‐family tight junction proteins. Of over a dozen alveolar cldns, cldn‐3, cldn‐4, and cldn‐18 are the most highly expressed; other prominent alveolar claudins include cldn‐5 and cldn‐7. Cldn‐3 is primarily expressed by type II alveolar epithelial cells, whereas cldn‐4 and cldn‐18 are expressed throughout the alveolar epithelium. Lung diseases associated with pulmonary edema, such as alcoholic lung syndrome and acute lung injury, affect alveolar claudin expression, which is frequently associated with impaired fluid clearance due to increased alveolar leak. However, recent studies have identified a role for increased cldn‐4 in protecting alveolar barrier function following injury. Thus, alveolar claudins are dynamically regulated, tailoring lung barrier function to control the air–liquid interface.

Regulation of claudin/zonula occludens-1 complexes by hetero-claudin interactions

Claudins are tetraspan transmembrane tight-junction proteins that regulate epithelial barriers. In the distal airspaces of the lung, alveolar epithelial tight junctions are crucial to regulate airspace fluid. Chronic alcohol abuse weakens alveolar tight junctions, priming the lung for acute respiratory distress syndrome, a frequently lethal condition caused by airspace flooding. Here we demonstrate that in response to alcohol, increased claudin-5 paradoxically accompanies an increase in paracellular leak and rearrangement of alveolar tight junctions. Claudin-5 is necessary and sufficient to diminish alveolar epithelial barrier function by impairing the ability of claudin-18 to interact with a scaffold protein, zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1), demonstrating that one claudin affects the ability of another claudin to interact with the tight-junction scaffold. Critically, a claudin-5 peptide mimetic reverses the deleterious effects of alcohol on alveolar barrier function. Thus, claudin controlled claudin-scaffold protein interactions are a novel target to regulate tight-junction permeability.

Claudin-based barrier differentiation in the colonic epithelial crypt niche involves Hopx/Klf4 and Tcf7l2/Hnf4-α cascades

ABSTRACT Colonic enterocytes form a rapidly renewing epithelium and barrier to luminal antigens. During renewal, coordinated expression of the claudin family of genes is vital to maintain the epithelial barrier. Disruption of this process contributes to barrier compromise and mucosal inflammatory diseases. However, little is known about the regulation of this critical aspect of epithelial cell differentiation. In order to identify claudin regulatory factors we utilized high-throughput gene microarrays and correlation analyses. We identified complex expression gradients for the transcription factors Hopx, Hnf4a, Klf4 and Tcf7l2, as well as 12 claudins, during differentiation. In vitro confirmatory methods identified 2 pathways that stimulate claudin expression; Hopx/Klf4 activation of Cldn4, 7 and 15, and Tcf7l2/Hnf4a up-regulation of Cldn23. Chromatin immunoprecipitation confirmed a Tcf7l2/Hnf4a/Claudin23 cascade. Furthermore, Hnf4a conditional knockout mice fail to induce Cldn23 during colonocyte differentiation. In conclusion, we report a comprehensive screen of colonic claudin gene expression and discover spatiotemporal Hopx/Klf4 and Tcf7l2/Hnf4a signaling as stimulators of colonic epithelial barrier differentiation.