John D. Cressler

SiGe HBT technology: a new contender for Si-based RF and microwave circuit applications

The silicon-germanium heterojunction bipolar transistor (SiGe HBT) is the first practical bandgap-engineered device to be realized in silicon. SiGe HBT technology combines transistor performance competitive with III-V technologies with the processing maturity, integration levels, yield, and hence, cost commonly associated with conventional Si fabrication. In the ten-and-one-half years since the first demonstration of a functional transistor, SiGe HBT technology has emerged from the research laboratory, entered manufacturing on 200-mm wafers, and is poised to enter the commercial RF and microwave market. State-of-the-art SiGe HBTs can deliver: (1) f/sub T/ in excess of 50 GHz; (2) f/sub max/ in excess of 70 GHz; (3) minimum noise figure below 0.7 dB at 2.0 GHz; (4) 1/f noise corner frequencies below 500 Hz; (5) cryogenic operation; (6) excellent radiation hardness; (7) competitive power amplifiers; and (8) reliability comparable to Si. A host of record-setting digital, analog, RF, and microwave circuits have been demonstrated in the past several years using SiGe HBTs, and recent work on passives and transmission lines on Si suggest a migratory path to Si-based monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) is possible. The combination of SiGe HBTs with advanced Si CMOS to form an SiGe BiCMOS technology represents a unique opportunity for Si-based RF system-on-a-chip solutions. This paper reviews state-of-the-art SiGe HBT technology and assesses its potential for current and future RF and microwave systems.

Si/SiGe epitaxial-base transistors. I. Materials, physics, and circuits

A detailed review of SiGe epitaxial base technology is presented, which chronicles the progression of research from materials deposition through device and integration demonstrations, culminating in the first SiGe integrated circuit application. In part I of this paper, the requirements and processes for high-quality SiGe film preparation are discussed, with emphasis on fundamental principles. A detailed overview of SiGe HBT device design and implications for circuit applications is then presented. >

Si/SiGe epitaxial-base transistors. II. Process integration and analog applications

For pt. I, see ibid., vol. 3, p. 455-68 (1995). This part focuses on process integration concerns, first described in general terms and then detailed through an extensive review of both simple non-self-aligned device structures and more complex self-aligned device structures. The extension of SiGe device technology to high levels of integration is then discussed through a detailed review of a full SiGe HBT BiCMOS process. Finally, analog circuit design is discussed and concluded, with a description of a 12-bit Digital-to-Analog Converter presented to highlight the current status of SiGe technology. >

Reconfigurable RFICs in Si-based technologies for a compact intelligent RF front-end

This paper presents reconfigurable RF integrated circuits (ICs) for a compact implementation of an intelligent RF front-end for multiband and multistandard applications. Reconfigurability has been addressed at each level starting from the basic elements to the RF blocks and the overall front-end architecture. An active resistor tunable from 400 to 1600 /spl Omega/ up to 10 GHz has been designed and an equivalent model has been extracted. A fully tunable active inductor using a tunable feedback resistor has been proposed that provides inductances between 0.1-15 nH with Q>50 in the C-band. To demonstrate reconfigurability at the block level, voltage-controlled oscillators with very wide tuning ranges have been implemented in the C-band using the proposed active inductor, as well as using a switched-spiral resonator with capacitive tuning. The ICs have been implemented using 0.18-/spl mu/m Si-CMOS and 0.18-/spl mu/m SiGe-BiCMOS technologies.

A new "mixed-mode" reliability degradation mechanism in advanced Si and SiGe bipolar transistors

A new mixed-mode base current degradation mechanism is identified in bipolar transistors for the first time, which, at room temperature, induces a large I/sub B/ leakage current only after simultaneous application of both high J/sub C/ and high V/sub CB/. This new mechanism differs fundamentally from well-known I/sub B/ degradation mechanisms such as the reverse EB voltage stress, high forward current stress and damage due to ionizing radiation. Extensive measurements and two-dimensional (2-D) simulations have been used to help understand the device physics associated with this new degradation mechanism.

Record maximum oscillation frequency in C-face epitaxial graphene transistors.

The maximum oscillation frequency (fmax) quantifies the practical upper bound for useful circuit operation. We report here an fmax of 70 GHz in transistors using epitaxial graphene grown on the C-face of SiC. This is a significant improvement over Si-face epitaxial graphene used in the prior high-frequency transistor studies, exemplifying the superior electronics potential of C-face epitaxial graphene. Careful transistor design using a high κ dielectric T-gate and self-aligned contacts further contributed to the record-breaking fmax.

Half-terahertz operation of SiGe HBTs

This letter presents the first demonstration of a silicon-germanium heterojunction bipolar transistor (SiGe HBT) capable of operation above the one-half terahertz (500 GHz) frequency. An extracted peak unity gain cutoff frequency (f/sub T/) of 510 GHz at 4.5 K was measured for a 0.12/spl times/1.0 /spl mu/m/sup 2/ SiGe HBT (352 GHz at 300 K) at a breakdown voltage BV/sub CEO/ of 1.36 V (1.47 V at 300 K), yielding an f/sub T//spl times/BV/sub CEO/ product of 693.6 GHz-V at 4.5 K (517.4 GHz-V at 300 K).

A unified approach to RF and microwave noise parameter modeling in bipolar transistors

A unified approach to RF and microwave noise parameter modeling in bipolar transistors is presented. Circuit level noise parameters including the minimum noise figure, the optimum generator admittance, and the noise resistance are analytically linked to the fundamental noise sources and the y-parameters of the transistor through circuit analysis of the chain noisy two-port representation. Comparisons of circuit level noise parameters from different physical models of noise sources in the transistor were made against measurements in UHV/CVD SiGe HBTs. A new model for the collector shot noise is then proposed which produces better noise parameter agreement with measured data than the SPICE noise model and the thermodynamic noise model, the two most recent Y-parameter based noise models.

Multiple-Bit Upset in 130 nm CMOS Technology

The probability of proton-induced multiple-bit upset (MBU) has increased in highly-scaled technologies because device dimensions are small relative to particle event track size. Both proton-induced single event upset (SEU) and MBU responses have been shown to vary with angle and energy for certain technologies. This work analyzes SEU and MBU in a 130 nm CMOS SRAM in which the single-event response shows a strong dependence on the angle of proton incidence. Current proton testing methods do not account for device orientation relative to the proton beam and, subsequently, error rate prediction assumes no angular dependencies. Proton-induced MBU is expected to increase as integrated circuits continue to scale into the deep sub-micron regime. Consequently, the application of current testing methods will lead to an incorrect prediction of error rates

Silicon Heterostructure Handbook : Materials, Fabrication, Devices, Circuits and Applications of SiGe and Si Strained-Layer Epitaxy

Foreword B.S. Meyerson INTRODUCTION The Big Picture J.D. Cressler A Brief History of the Field J.D. Cressler SiGe AND Si STRAINED-LAYER EPITAXY Overview: SiGe and Si Strained-Layer Epitaxy J.D. Cressler Strained SiGe and Si Epitaxy B. Tillack and P. Zaumseil Si/SiGe(C) Eptiaxy by RTCVD D. Dutartre, F. Deleglise, C. Fellous, L. Rubaldo, and A. Talbot MBE Growth Techniques M. Oehme and E. Kasper UHV/CVD Growth Techniques T.N. Adam Defects and Diffusion in SiGe and Strained Si A.R. Peaker and V. Markevich Stability Constraints in SiGe Epitaxy A. Fischer Electronic Properties of Strained Si/SiGe and Si1-yCy Alloys J.L. Hoyt Carbon Doping of SiGe H.J. Osten Contact Metallization on Silicon-Germanium C.K. Maiti Selective Etching Techniques for SiGe/Si S. Monfray, S. Borel, and T. Skotnicki FABRICATION OF SiGe HBT BiCMOS TECHNOLOGY Overview: Fabrication of SiGe HBT BiCMOS Technology J.D. Cressler Device Structures and BiCMOS Integration D.L. Harame SiGe HBTs on CMOS-Compatible SOI J. Cai and T.H. Ning Passive Components J.N. Burghartz Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: IBM A.J. Joseph and J.S. Dunn Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Jazz P.H.G. Kempf Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Hitachi K. Washio Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Infineon T.F. Meister, H. Schafer, W. Perndl, and J. Bock Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: IHP D. Knoll Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: ST A. Chantre, M. Laurens, B. Szelag, H. Baudry, P. Chevalier, J. Mourier, G. Troillard, B. Martinet, M. Marty, and A. Monroy Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Texas Instruments B. El-Kareh, S. Balster, P. Steinmann, and H. Yasuda Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Philips R. Colclaser and P. Deixler SiGe HBTs Overview: SiGe HBTs J.D. Cressler Device Physics J.D. Cressler Second-Order Effects J.D. Cressler Low-Frequency Noise G. Niu Broadband Noise D.R. Greenberg Microscopic Noise Simulation G. Niu Linearity G. Niu pnp SiGe HBTs J.D. Cressler Temperature Effects J.D. Cressler Radiation Effects J.D. Cressler Reliability Issues J.D. Cressler Self-Heating and Thermal Effects J-S. Rieh Device-Level Simulation G. Niu SiGe HBT Performance Limits G. Freeman, A. Stricker, J-S. Rieh, and D.R. Greenberg HETEROSTRUCTURE FETs Overview: Heterostructure FETs J.D. Cressler Biaxial Strained Si CMOS K. Rim Uniaxial Stressed Si MOSFET S.E. Thompson SiGe-Channel HFETs S. Banerjee Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Intels 90 nm Logic Technologies S.E. Thompson OTHER HETEROSTRUCTURE DEVICES Overview: Other Heterostructure Devices J.D. Cressler Resonant Tunneling Devices S. Tsujino, D. Grutzmacher, and U. Gennser IMPATT Diodes E. Kasper and M. Oehme Engineered Substrates for Electronic and Optoelectronic Systems E.A. Fitzgerald Self-Assembling Nanostructures in Ge(Si)-Si Heteroepitaxy R. Hull OPTOELECTRONIC COMPONENTS Overview: Optoelectronic Components J.D. Cressler Si-SiGe LEDs K.L. Wang, S. Tong, and H.J. Kim Near-Infrared Detectors L. Colace, G. Masini, and G. Assanto Si-Based Photonic Transistors for Integrated Optoelectronics W.X. Ni and A. Elfving Si-SiGe Quantum Cascade Emitters D.J. Paul MEASUREMENT AND MODELING Overview: Measurement and Modeling J.D. Cressler Best-Practice AC Measurement Techniques R.A. Groves Industrial Application of TCAD for SiGe Development D.C. Sheridan, J.B. Johnson, and R. Krishnasamy Compact Modeling of SiGe HBTs: HICUM M. Schroter Compact Modeling of SiGe HBTs: MEXTRAM S. Mijalkovic CAD Tools and Design Kits S.E. Strang Parasitic Modeling and Noise Mitigation Approaches in Silicon Germanium RF Designs R. Singh Transmission Lines on Si Y.V. Tretiakov Improved De-Embedding Techniques Q. Liang CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS Overview: Circuits and Applications J.D. Cressler SiGe as an Enabler for Wireless Communications Systems L.E. Larson and D.Y.C. Lie LNA Optimization Strategies Q. Liang Linearization Techniques L.C.N. de Vreede and M.P. van der Heijden SiGe MMICs H. Schumacher SiGe Millimeter-Wave ICs J-F. Luy Wireless Building Blocks Using SiGe HBTs J.R. Long Direct Conversion Architectures for SiGe Radios S. Chakraborty and J. Laskar RF MEMS Techniques in Si/SiGe J. Papapolymerou Wideband Antennas on Silicon M.M. Tentzeris and R.L. Li Packaging Issues for SiGe Circuits K. Lim, S. Pinel, and J. Laskar Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: IBM D.J. Friedman and M. Meghelli Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: Hitachi K. Washio Industry Examples at State-of-the-Art: ST D. Belot APPENDICES Properties of Silicon and Germanium J.D. Cressler The Generalized Moll-Ross Relations J.D. Cressler Integral Charge-Control Relations M. Schroter Sample SiGe HBT Compact Model Parameters R.M. Malladi INDEX