Ruud Smits

Innovation studies in the 21st century;: Questions from a user's perspective

Abstract Science-based innovations have played an important role in our society for centuries. In this paper, after a discussion of the concept of innovation, changes in three major developments in the context of innovation processes are analysed: structural changes in our economy, the broadening of decision-making processes and the emergence of the network society, and changes in the knowledge infrastructure. On the basis of this analysis, questions and challenges confronting the players involved in innovation processes and the management of them are identified and topics for a research agenda for innovation researchers that take into account the needs of these players are formulated. The focus is on the macro and meso level, and the broadening of decision-making on innovation processes acts as an important guiding principle. Three lines of research are distinguished on the research agenda: (1) empirical studies of innovation processes and systems, (2) critical reflection on innovation theory, and (3) analysis and support of decision-making processes. With regard to the first line, case studies of innovation in services, life sciences, the relationship between ICT and sustainability and the identification of (intangible) throughput and output indicators are on the agenda. The reflection on theory (line 2) focuses primarily on innovation in chains and clusters, the role of (knowledge intensive) intermediaries and the interaction between processes and systems. Furthermore, innovation studies should also try to contribute towards endogenisation of innovation in other scientific disciplines. With regard to the analysis and support of decision-making processes (line 3), strategic intelligence providing insight into the potential, application and implementation of new technologies and the development of instruments to support players in innovation processes are addressed. An important basic assumption of this paper is that innovation studies should not only strive to deepen the insight into innovation processes and systems, but also to contribute to the development of insights, concepts, methods, techniques and instruments to support various players involved in innovation processes. The major conclusion of this paper is that shifts in the context of innovation processes, more particularly the emergence of the ‘porous society’, will lead to a radical transformation of innovation systems in which (knowledge intensive) intermediaries and the quality of the interface between users and producers play an increasingly important role.

Notions on learning applied to wind turbine development in the Netherlands and Denmark

Abstract This research investigates how methods of learning influenced the emerging wind power industries in the Netherlands and Denmark. It is found that the manufacturing and implementation successes in Denmark contrast with the relatively poor progress in the Netherlands, and that one of the reasons for this is the contrast in learning mechanisms between the countries. We start from the perspective of innovation systems. Within these systems we place the focus on four types of learning processes: learning by searching, learning by doing, learning by using and learning by interacting. It is concluded that in Denmark, learning by interacting was the most important learning process, while in the Netherlands it was learning by searching. The Dutch wind turbine innovation system was a typical ‘science-push’ innovation system. The aim was to develop large wind turbines at a fast pace, based on the results of scientific research. Because of the lack of contacts between the researchers and the wind turbine producers, the implementation of the research results was problematic. Contrarily, in Denmark the focus was on knowledge transfer between turbine producers, turbine owners and researchers. In this innovation system, conditions for learning by interacting were optimal. In this way, wind turbines were successfully, though slowly, scaled up and improved.

In search of relevance: The changing contract between science and society

This paper presents a framework to study the historical development of the relationship between science and society. We elaborate this relationship as a contract that specifies the mission of scientific research, the rationales for public support for science, and the conditions under which scientists work. These three structural elements will always be part of the contract, but their specific content can vary. The credibility cycle, as a model for scientific practice, helps to describe and understand the consequences of a changing contract for the work of individual scientists. A brief case study of chemistry in the Netherlands demonstrates the usefulness of the framework. We show how concepts of relevance have changed since 1975 and how this affects the practice of academic chemistry.

Wood innovation in the residential construction sector; opportunities and constraints

We study the opportunities to increase the use of wood in the Dutch residential construction sector and assess the effects on material related CO2 emission. Four house types are modeled with increasing quantities of wood used in constructions. CO2 emission reductions of almost 50% are technically possible. We assess the innovation characteristics of these wood applications to create insights in the complexity of the necessary change process. Then we relate the innovation characteristics of the wood options to the context in which implementation of the technologies take place. The options vary strongly in the required technical and network changes and so do the opportunities to implement them. Based on this we expect that a 12% CO2 emission reduction related to material use for residential buildings is possible in the short term by an increased share of wood use. We also study the possibilities for increased wood recycling practices. A large technical potential exists. To achieve this potential a significant policy effort is needed since significant changes in both technical and network dimensions are necessary. To stimulate innovation in the use of wood in residential construction, important focus points of policy making should be the culture in the Dutch construction sector, the way new building projects are commissioned, research areas within the building sector, and stabilization of building networks.

The Theory and Practice of Innovation Policy

This comprehensive Handbook explores the interactions between the practice, policy, and theory of innovation. The goal is twofold: to increase insight into this dynamic process, searching for options to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of both policy and innovative practice, and to identify conceptual or empirical lacunae and questions that can guide future research. The Handbook is a joint project from 24 prominent scholars in the field, and although each chapter reveals the insights of its respective authors, two overarching theoretical perspectives provide unique coherence and consistency throughout.

Technology assessment and technology policy in Europe : New concepts, new goals, new infrastructures

Starting from the observation that the technological potentials are underutilized in economic and in social tems, this article raises the question of what role technology assessment (TA) can play in technology policy to address this problem. The causes of the problem of underutilization are analyzed and discussed in relation to developments in technology policy and TA. Against this background, the actual state of TA in Europe at national and supranational levels is described, gaps and flaws in the European TA Infrastructure (ETAI) are identified, and suggestions for improvement are made. It is concluded that TA can play an important role in increasing the social and economic returns on investments in the development of new technology. Growing interest in, and budgets for, TA at European level — together with the shift from a supply side toward a more demand oriented technology policy — create a favorable environment for this. However, attempts to strengthen TA will only be successful if the TA community recognizes this role and is not satisfied with the marginal position it still has.

The role of users in innovation in the pharmaceutical industry.

Traditionally, innovation in the pharmaceutical industry is organised according to the linear model. Over the past two decades this model lost its meaning as a result of rising costs, increased competition, new scientific developments and better-informed, more demanding users. The linear model is not well equipped to involve these new actors and to include their feedback. Starting from a systemic approach, the involvement of actors in pharmaceutical innovation processes, more in particular users, is put central. It is discussed and illustrated with three cases why a systemic model may be more effective to cope with present developments and why users should be involved. To wind up, conclusions are drawn regarding the implications of a systemic approach for policymakers, researchers and firms.

Innovation management: different approaches to cope with the same trends

The constant failure rate of new product introductions in the last decades implies that little progress in innovation management can be witnessed. Innovation management is seen as an activity in a multi-level system. The main trends in this system will be described. These trends are inter-related in a complex way and, as a result, the focus in innovation management should be on the combined effect of these trends and on the events that could destabilise the entire system. This article describes four general consequences of the trends in innovation management: 1 the end of the linear model 2 the rise of the systems approach 3 the inherent uncertainty and need for learning 4 innovation becomes more entrepreneurial. These consequences can lead to entirely different approaches to innovation management, two of which will be discussed. The article concludes that significant progress in innovation management has been obtained, but the failure rate has remained the same because of the changing conditions.

Perceived uncertainties regarding socio-technological transformations: towards a framework

Socio-technological transformations are difficult to achieve. Perceived uncertainties that hinder the innovation decisions of involved actors play a key role in this process. Determining how perceived uncertainties differ between types of actors and between transformation phases (pre-development, take-off, acceleration, stabilisation) can provide essential insights for managing such transformations. This article aims at presenting a framework for analysing the role of uncertainties in socio-technological transformations. In this framework, we classify uncertainties according to their source (technology, resources, competitors, suppliers, consumers, politics), nature (knowledge, variability) and level (low to high) and relate this uncertainty typology to the different transformation phases and involved actors. Finally, we discuss implications for policy.

TA and the management of innovation in economy and society

Over the last 35 years, technology assessment has evolved from a predictive, scientific endeavor into policy-oriented research that takes the coevolution of Innovation Systems (IS) and innovation processes as point of departure. Parallel to this, also innovation studies developed further providing many insights in the underlying dynamics of innovation processes. The question is raised how, based on insights from innovation studies, TA could contribute more to the involvement of users in systemic innovation policies? More in particular: (1) Which recent insights from innovation studies have influenced the development of innovation policies? (2) How did innovation policy develop over the last three decades? (3) Why are users important for systemic innovation policies, and what are the problems that hinder involvement of users? (4) How could TA contribute to reinforcing the role of users? The paper will wind up by discussing consequences for policy and suggestions for further research.