Xiao-Chan Gao

Genome architecture changes and major gene variations of Andrias davidianus ranavirus (ADRV)

Ranaviruses are emerging pathogens that have led to global impact and public concern. As a rarely endangered species and the largest amphibian in the world, the Chinese giant salamander, Andrias davidianus, has recently undergone outbreaks of epidemic diseases with high mortality. In this study, we isolated and identified a novel ranavirus from the Chinese giant salamanders that exhibited systemic hemorrhage and swelling syndrome with high death rate in China during May 2011 to August 2012. The isolate, designated Andrias davidianus ranavirus (ADRV), not only could induce cytopathic effects in different fish cell lines and yield high viral titers, but also caused severely hemorrhagic lesions and resulted in 100% mortality in experimental infections of salamanders. The complete genome of ADRV was sequenced and compared with other sequenced amphibian ranaviruses. Gene content and phylogenetic analyses revealed that ADRV should belong to an amphibian subgroup in genus Ranavirus, and is more closely related to frog ranaviruses than to other salamander ranaviruses. Homologous gene comparisons show that ADRV contains 99%, 97%, 94%, 93% and 85% homologues in RGV, FV3, CMTV, TFV and ATV genomes respectively. In addition, several variable major genes, such as duplicate US22 family-like genes, viral eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha gene and novel 75L gene with both motifs of nuclear localization signal (NLS) and nuclear export signal (NES), were predicted to contribute to pathogen virulence and host susceptibility. These findings confirm the etiologic role of ADRV in epidemic diseases of Chinese giant salamanders, and broaden our understanding of evolutionary emergence of ranaviruses.

Rana grylio virus (RGV) envelope protein 2L: subcellular localization and essential roles in virus infectivity revealed by conditional lethal mutant

Rana grylio virus (RGV) is a pathogenic iridovirus that has resulted in high mortality in cultured frog. Here, an envelope protein gene, 2L, was identified from RGV and its possible role in virus infection was investigated. Database searches found that RGV 2L had homologues in all sequenced iridoviruses and is a core gene of iridoviruses. Western blotting detection of purified RGV virions confirmed that 2L protein was associated with virion membrane. Fluorescence localization revealed that 2L protein co-localized with viral factories in RGV infected cells. In co-transfected cells, 2L protein co-localized with two other viral envelope proteins, 22R and 53R. However, 2L protein did not co-localize with the major capsid protein of RGV in co-transfected cells. Meanwhile, fluorescence observation showed that 2L protein co-localized with endoplasmic reticulum, but did not co-localize with mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. Moreover, a conditional lethal mutant virus containing the lac repressor/operator system was constructed to investigate the role of RGV 2L in virus infection. The ability to form plaques and the virus titres were strongly reduced when expression of 2L was repressed. Therefore, the current data showed that 2L protein is essential for virus infection. Our study is the first report, to our knowledge, of co-localization between envelope proteins in iridovirus and provides new insights into the understanding of envelope proteins in iridovirus.

A conditional lethal mutation in Rana grylio virus ORF 53R resulted in a marked reduction in virion formation.

Rana grylio virus (RGV) is a pathogenic iridovirus that has resulted in high mortality in cultured frog. Here, a recombinant RGV (i53R-RGV-lacIO) containing the inducible lac repressor/operator system was constructed. i53R-RGV-lacIO was a conditional lethal mutant in which the expression of envelope protein 53R was regulated by IPTG. i53R-RGV-lacIO shared characteristics similar to RGV in the presence of IPTG. However, the expression level of 53R, the ability of plaques formation, and the virus titers were strongly reduced in the absence of IPTG. Electron microscopy showed that the number of progeny virus produced by i53R-RGV-lacIO was remarkably reduced without IPTG. Furthermore, over-expression of 53R in vitro could increase titers of i53R-RGV-lacIO in the absence of IPTG. Therefore, the current data suggested that the lac repressor/operator system could regulate gene expression in the recombinant iridovirus. Our study was thought to be the first report of the system in aquatic virus.

Establishment of three cell lines from Chinese giant salamander and their sensitivities to the wild-type and recombinant ranavirus

Known as lethal pathogens, Ranaviruses have been identified in diseased fish, amphibians (including Chinese giant salamander Andrias davidianus, the world’s largest amphibian) and reptiles, causing organ necrosis and systemic hemorrhage. Here, three Chinese giant salamander cell lines, thymus cell line (GSTC), spleen cell line (GSSC) and kidney cell line (GSKC) were initially established. Their sensitivities to ranaviruses, wild-type Andrias davidianus ranavirus (ADRV) and recombinant Rana grylio virus carrying EGFP gene (rRGV-EGFP) were tested. Temporal transcription pattern of ranavirus major capsid protein (MCP), fluorescence and electron microscopy observations showed that both the wild-type and recombinant ranavirus could replicate in the cell lines.

Whole-Genome Analysis of a Novel Fish Reovirus (MsReV) Discloses Aquareovirus Genomic Structure Relationship with Host in Saline Environments.

Aquareoviruses are serious pathogens of aquatic animals. Here, genome characterization and functional gene analysis of a novel aquareovirus, largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides reovirus (MsReV), was described. It comprises 11 dsRNA segments (S1–S11) covering 24,024 bp, and encodes 12 putative proteins including the inclusion forming-related protein NS87 and the fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) protein NS22. The function of NS22 was confirmed by expression in fish cells. Subsequently, MsReV was compared with two representative aquareoviruses, saltwater fish turbot Scophthalmus maximus reovirus (SMReV) and freshwater fish grass carp reovirus strain 109 (GCReV-109). MsReV NS87 and NS22 genes have the same structure and function with those of SMReV, whereas GCReV-109 is either missing the coiled-coil region in NS79 or the gene-encoding NS22. Significant similarities are also revealed among equivalent genome segments between MsReV and SMReV, but a difference is found between MsReV and GCReV-109. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis showed that 13 aquareoviruses could be divided into freshwater and saline environments subgroups, and MsReV was closely related to SMReV in saline environments. Consequently, these viruses from hosts in saline environments have more genomic structural similarities than the viruses from hosts in freshwater. This is the first study of the relationships between aquareovirus genomic structure and their host environments.

Unraveling the genome structure of cyanobacterial podovirus A-4L with long direct terminal repeats.

The freshwater cyanobacterial virus (cyanophage) A-4L, a podovirus, can infect the model cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 resulting in a high burst size and forming concentric plaques on its lawns. The complete genome sequence of A-4L was determined by the combination of high-throughput sequencing, terminal transferase-mediated polymerase chain reaction and restriction mapping. It contains 41,750 bp with 810 bp direct terminal repeats and 38 potential open reading frames. As compared with other cyanobacterial podoviruses in diverse ecosystems, the A-4L has the longest terminal repeat and shares similar genome organizations with freshwater members. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis based on concatenated sequences of eight core proteins indicated that freshwater cyanobacterial podoviruses were clustered together and distinct from marine counterparts, suggesting a clear divergence in the cyanobacterial podovirus lineage between freshwater and marine ecosystems. Our findings uncover the unique genome structure of A-4L which contains long direct terminal repeats, and create the first model system to address knowledge gaps in understanding cyanobacterial virus-host interactions at the molecular level.

Morphological Changes in Amphibian and Fish Cell Lines Infected with Andrias davidianus Ranavirus

Andrias davidianus ranavirus (ADRV) is an emerging viral pathogen that causes severe disease in Chinese giant salamanders, the largest extant amphibian in the world. A fish cell line, Epithelioma papulosum cyprinid (EPC), and a new amphibian cell line, Chinese giant salamander spleen cell (GSSC), were infected with ADRV and observed by light and electron microscopy. The morphological changes in these two cell lines infected with ADRV were compared. Cytopathic effect (CPE) began with rounding of the cells, progressing to cell detachment in the cell monolayer, followed by cell lysis. Significant CPE was visualized as early as 24 h post infection (hpi) in EPC cells and at 36 hpi in GSSC cells. Microscopical examination showed clear and significant CPE in EPC cells, while less extensive and irregular CPE with some adherent cells remaining was observed in GSSC cells. Following ADRV infection, CPE became more extensive. Transmission electron micrographs showed many virus particles around cytoplasmic vacuoles, formed as crystalline arrays or scattered in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Infected cells showed alteration in nuclear morphology, with condensed and marginalized nuclear chromatin on the inner aspect of the nuclear membrane and formation of a cytoplasmic viromatrix adjacent to the nucleus in both cell lines. Some virus particles were also detected in the nucleus of infected GSSC cells. Both cell lines are able to support replication of ADRV and can therefore be used to investigate amphibian ranaviruses.

Protective Immunity Induced by DNA Vaccination against Ranavirus Infection in Chinese Giant Salamander Andrias davidianus

Andrias davidianus ranavirus (ADRV) is an emerging viral pathogen that causes severe systemic hemorrhagic disease in Chinese giant salamanders. There is an urgent need for developing an effective vaccine against this fatal disease. In this study, DNA vaccines containing the ADRV 2L gene (pcDNA-2L) and the 58L gene (pcDNA-58L) were respectively constructed, and their immune protective effects were evaluated in Chinese giant salamanders. In vitro and in vivo expression of the vaccine plasmids were confirmed in transfected cells and muscle tissues of vaccinated Chinese giant salamanders by using immunoblot analysis or RT-PCR. Following ADRV challenge, the Chinese giant salamanders vaccinated with pcDNA-2L showed a relative percent survival (RPS) of 66.7%, which was significant higher than that in Chinese giant salamanders immunized with pcDNA-58L (RPS of 3.3%). Moreover, the specific antibody against ADRV was detected in Chinese giant salamanders vaccinated with pcDNA-2L at 14 and 21 days post-vaccination by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Transcriptional analysis revealed that the expression levels of immune-related genes including type I interferon (IFN), myxovirus resistance (Mx), major histocompatibility complex class IA (MHC IA), and immunoglobulin M (IgM) were strongly up-regulated after vaccination with pcDNA-2L. Furthermore, vaccination with pcDNA-2L significantly suppressed the virus replication, which was seen by a low viral load in the spleen of Chinese giant salamander survivals after ADRV challenge. These results indicated that pcDNA-2L could induce a significant innate immune response and an adaptive immune response involving both humoral and cell-mediated immunity that conferred effective protection against ADRV infection, and might be a potential vaccine candidate for controlling ADRV disease in Chinese giant salamanders.

Development and application of monoclonal antibodies for detection and analysis of aquareoviruses

ABSTRACT Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) play an important role in detection of aquareoviruses. Three mAbs against grass carp reovirus (GCRV) were prepared. Isotyping revealed that all three mAbs were of subclass IgG2b. Western blot assay showed that all three mAbs reacted with GCRV 69 kDa protein (the putative VP5). In addition to the 69 kDa protein of GCRV, mAb 4B6 also recognize a 54 kDa protein. All three mAbs were used for detecting aquareovirus by Western blot assay and indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). All of them reacted with GCRV, and mAb 4A3 could also react with turbot Scophthalmus maximus reovirus (SMReV) and largemouth bass Microptererus salmonides reovirus (MsReV). Viral antigens were only observed in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Finally, syncytia formation was observed with light microscopy and fluorescence microscopy using fluorescein labelled 4A3 mAb at various times post-infection. Syncytia were observed at 36 hr post-infection (hpi) by light microscopy and at 12 hpi by fluorescence microscopy. The immunofluorescence based assay allowed earlier detection of virus than observation of virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) assay in inoculated cell cultures. The sensitivity and specificity of these mAbs may be useful for diagnosis and monitoring of aquareoviruses.